| Language | HTML | Single HTML | |||
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3.6.??Secure Shell
Secure Shell (SSH) is a powerful network protocol used to communicate with another system over a secure channel. The transmissions over SSH are encrypted and protected from interception. Cryptographic log-on can also be utilized to provide a better authentication method over traditional usernames and passwords.
SSH is very easy to activate. By simply starting the sshd service, the system will begin to accept connections and will allow access to the system when a correct username and password is provided during the connection process. The standard TCP port for the SSH service is 22, however this can be changed by modifying the configuration file /etc/ssh/sshd_config and restarting the service. This file also contains other configuration options for SSH.
Secure Shell (SSH) also provides encrypted tunnels between computers but only using a single port. Port forwarding can be done over an SSH tunnel and traffic will be encrypted as it passes over that tunnel but using port forwarding is not as fluid as a VPN.
3.5.??Virtual Private Networks
Virtual Private Networks (VPN) provide encrypted tunnels between computers or networks of computers across all ports. With a VPN in place, all network traffic from the client is forwarded to the server through the encrypted tunnel. This means that the client is logically on the same network as the server it is connected to via the VPN. VPNs are very common and are simple to use and setup.
3.4.??Data in Motion
Data in motion is data that is being transmitted over a network. The biggest threats to data in motion are interception and alteration. Your user name and password should never be transmitted over a network without protection as it could be intercepted and used by someone else to impersonate you or gain access to sensitive information. Other private information such as bank account information should also be protected when transmitted across a network. If the network session was encrypted then you would not have to worry as much about the data being compromised while it is being transmitted.
Data in motion is particularly vulnerable to attackers because the attacker does not have to be near the computer in which the data is being stored rather they only have to be somewhere along the path. Encryption tunnels can protect data along the path of communications.
3.3.??File Based Encryption
GnuPG (GPG) is an open source version of PGP that allows you to sign and/or encrypt a file or an email message. This is useful to maintain integrity of the message or file and also protects the confidentiality of the information contained within the file or email. In the case of email, GPG provides dual protection. Not only can it provide Data at Rest protection but also Data In Motion protection once the message has been sent across the network.
File based encryption is intended to protect a file after it has left your computer, such as when you send a CD through the mail. Some file based encryption solutions will leave remnants of the encrypted files that an attacker who has physical access to your computer can recover under some circumstances. To protect the contents of those files from attackers who may have access to your computer, use file based encryption combined with another solution such as full disk encryption.
2.??We Need Feedback!
More information about the Linux Security Guide project can be found at https://fedorahosted.org/securityguide
To provide feedback for the Security Guide, please file a bug in https://bugzilla.redhat.com/enter_bug.cgi?component=security-guide&product=Fedora%20Documentation. Please select the proper component in the dropdown menu which should be the page name.
Chapter??3.??Encryption
There are two main types of data that must be protected: data at rest and data in motion. These different types of data are protected in similar ways using similar technology but the implementations can be completely different. No single protective implementation can prevent all possible methods of compromise as the same information may be at rest and in motion at different points in time.
3.1.??Data at Rest
Data at rest is data that is stored on a hard drive, tape, CD, DVD, disk, or other media. This information's biggest threat comes from being physically stolen. Laptops in airports, CDs going through the mail, and backup tapes that get left in the wrong places are all examples of events where data can be compromised through theft. If the data was encrypted on the media then you wouldn't have to worry as much about the data being compromised.
Chapter??4.??General Principles of Information Security
The following general principals provide an overview of good security practices:
- encrypt all data transmitted over networks to help prevent man-in-the-middle attacks and eavesdropping. It is important to encrypt authentication information, such as passwords.
- minimize the amount of software installed and running services.
- use security-enhancing software and tools, for example, Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) for Mandatory Access Control (MAC), Netfilter iptables for packet filtering (firewall), and the GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG) for encrypting files.
- if possible, run each network service on a separate system to minimize the risk of one compromised service being used to compromise other services.
- maintain user accounts: create and enforce a strong password policy; delete unused user accounts.
- routinely review system and application logs. By default, security-relevant system logs are written to
/var/log/secureand/var/log/audit/audit.log. Note: sending logs to a dedicated log server helps prevent attackers from easily modifying local logs to avoid detection. - never log in as the root user unless absolutely necessary. It is recommended that administrators use
sudoto execute commands as root when required. Users capable of runningsudoare specified in/etc/sudoers. Use thevisudoutility to edit/etc/sudoers.
4.1.??Tips, Guides, and Tools
The United States' National Security Agency (NSA) provides hardening guides and tips for many different operating systems, to help government agencies, businesses, and individuals secure their systems against attack. The following guides (in PDF format) provide guidance for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5:
The Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) provides documentation, checklists, and tests to help secure your system (Information Assurance Support Environment). The UNIX SECURITY TECHNICAL IMPLEMENTATION GUIDE (PDF) is a very specific guide to UNIX security - an advanced knowledge of UNIX and Linux is recommended before reading this guide.
The DISA UNIX Security Checklist Version 5, Release 1.16 provides a collection of documents and checklists, ranging from the correct ownerships and modes for system files, to patch control.
Also, DISA has made available UNIX SPR scripts that allow administrators to check specific settings on systems. These scripts provide XML-formatted reports listing any known vulnerable settings.
Chapter??7.??References
The following references are pointers to additional information that is relevant to SELinux and Fedora but beyond the scope of this guide. Note that due to the rapid development of SELinux, some of this material may only apply to specific releases of Fedora.
Books
- SELinux by Example
- Mayer, MacMillan, and CaplanPrentice Hall, 2007
Tutorials and Help
- Understanding and Customizing the Apache HTTP SELinux Policy
- Tutorials and talks from Russell Coker
- Generic Writing SELinux policy HOWTO
- Red Hat Knowledgebase
General Information
- NSA SELinux main website
- NSA SELinux FAQ
- Fedora SELinux FAQ
- SELinux NSA's Open Source Security Enhanced Linux
Technology
- An Overview of Object Classes and Permissions
- Integrating Flexible Support for Security Policies into the Linux Operating System (a history of Flask implementation in Linux)
- Implementing SELinux as a Linux Security Module
- A Security Policy Configuration for the Security-Enhanced Linux
Community
- Fedora SELinux User Guide
- SELinux community page
- IRC
- irc.freenode.net, #selinux
History
- Quick history of Flask
- Full background on Fluke
Chapter??5.??Secure Installation
Security begins with the first time you put that CD or DVD into your disk drive to install Fedora. Configuring your system securely from the beginning makes it easier to implement additional security settings later.
5.1.??Disk Partitions
The NSA recommends creating separate partitions for /boot, /, /home, /tmp, and /var/tmp. The reasons for each are different and we will address each partition.
/boot - This partition is the first partition that is read by the system during boot up. The boot loader and kernel images that are used to boot your system into Fedora are stored in this partition. This partition should not be encrypted. If this partition is included in / and that partition is encrypted or otherwise becomes unavailable then your system will not be able to boot.
/home - When user data (/home) is stored in / instead of in a separate partition, the partition can fill up causing the operating system to become unstable. Also, when upgrading your system to the next version of Fedora it is a lot easier when you can keep your data in the /home partition as it will not be overwritten during installation. If the root partition (/) becomes corrupt your data could be lost forever. By using a separate partition there is slightly more protection against data loss. You can also target this partition for frequent backups.
/tmp and /var/tmp - Both the /tmp and the /var/tmp directories are used to store data that doesn't need to be stored for a long period of time. However if a lot of data floods one of these directories it can consume all of your storage space. If this happens and these directories are stored within / then your system could become unstable and crash. For this reason, moving these directories into their own partitions is a good idea.
- PrevChapter??4.??General Principles of Information Secu...
- Up
- Home
- Next5.2.??Utilize LUKS Partition Encryption
Chapter??2.??Securing Your Network
- 2.1. Workstation Security
- 2.2. Server Security
- 2.3. Single Sign-on (SSO)
- 2.4. Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)
- 2.5. TCP Wrappers and xinetd
- 2.6. Kerberos
- 2.6.1. What is Kerberos?
- 2.6.2. Kerberos Terminology
- 2.6.3. How Kerberos Works
- 2.6.4. Kerberos and PAM
- 2.6.5. Configuring a Kerberos 5 Server
- 2.6.6. Configuring a Kerberos 5 Client
- 2.6.7. Domain-to-Realm Mapping
- 2.6.8. Setting Up Secondary KDCs
- 2.6.9. Setting Up Cross Realm Authentication
- 2.6.10. Additional Resources
- 2.7. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
- 2.8. Firewalls
- 2.9. IPTables
2.1.??Workstation Security
Securing a Linux environment begins with the workstation. Whether locking down a personal machine or securing an enterprise system, sound security policy begins with the individual computer. A computer network is only as secure as its weakest node.
2.1.1.??Evaluating Workstation Security
When evaluating the security of a Fedora workstation, consider the following:
- BIOS and Boot Loader Security ??? Can an unauthorized user physically access the machine and boot into single user or rescue mode without a password?
- Password Security ??? How secure are the user account passwords on the machine?
- Administrative Controls ??? Who has an account on the system and how much administrative control do they have?
- Available Network Services ??? What services are listening for requests from the network and should they be running at all?
- Personal Firewalls ??? What type of firewall, if any, is necessary?
- Security Enhanced Communication Tools ??? Which tools should be used to communicate between workstations and which should be avoided?
2.1.2.??BIOS and Boot Loader Security
Password protection for the BIOS (or BIOS equivalent) and the boot loader can prevent unauthorized users who have physical access to systems from booting using removable media or obtaining root privileges through single user mode. The security measures you should take to protect against such attacks depends both on the sensitivity of the information on the workstation and the location of the machine.
For example, if a machine is used in a trade show and contains no sensitive information, then it may not be critical to prevent such attacks. However, if an employee's laptop with private, unencrypted SSH keys for the corporate network is left unattended at that same trade show, it could lead to a major security breach with ramifications for the entire company.
If the workstation is located in a place where only authorized or trusted people have access, however, then securing the BIOS or the boot loader may not be necessary.
2.1.2.1.??BIOS Passwords
The two primary reasons for password protecting the BIOS of a computer are[11]:
- Preventing Changes to BIOS Settings ??? If an intruder has access to the BIOS, they can set it to boot from a diskette or CD-ROM. This makes it possible for them to enter rescue mode or single user mode, which in turn allows them to start arbitrary processes on the system or copy sensitive data.
- Preventing System Booting ??? Some BIOSes allow password protection of the boot process. When activated, an attacker is forced to enter a password before the BIOS launches the boot loader.
Because the methods for setting a BIOS password vary between computer manufacturers, consult the computer's manual for specific instructions.
If you forget the BIOS password, it can either be reset with jumpers on the motherboard or by disconnecting the CMOS battery. For this reason, it is good practice to lock the computer case if possible. However, consult the manual for the computer or motherboard before attempting to disconnect the CMOS battery.
2.1.2.1.1.??Securing Non-x86 Platforms
Other architectures use different programs to perform low-level tasks roughly equivalent to those of the BIOS on x86 systems. For instance, Intel?? Itanium??? computers use the Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) shell.
For instructions on password protecting BIOS-like programs on other architectures, refer to the manufacturer's instructions.
2.1.2.2.??Boot Loader Passwords
The primary reasons for password protecting a Linux boot loader are as follows:
- Preventing Access to Single User Mode ??? If attackers can boot the system into single user mode, they are logged in automatically as root without being prompted for the root password.
- Preventing Access to the GRUB Console ??? If the machine uses GRUB as its boot loader, an attacker can use the GRUB editor interface to change its configuration or to gather information using the
catcommand. - Preventing Access to Insecure Operating Systems ??? If it is a dual-boot system, an attacker can select an operating system at boot time (for example, DOS), which ignores access controls and file permissions.
Fedora ships with the GRUB boot loader on the x86 platform. For a detailed look at GRUB, refer to the Red Hat Installation Guide.
2.1.2.2.1.??Password Protecting GRUB
You can configure GRUB to address the first two issues listed in Section??2.1.2.2, ???Boot Loader Passwords??? by adding a password directive to its configuration file. To do this, first choose a strong password, open a shell, log in as root, and then type the following command:
/sbin/grub-md5-crypt
When prompted, type the GRUB password and press Enter. This returns an MD5 hash of the password.
Next, edit the GRUB configuration file
/boot/grub/grub.conf. Open the file and below the timeout line in the main section of the document, add the following line:
password --md5 <password-hash>
The next time the system boots, the GRUB menu prevents access to the editor or command interface without first pressing p followed by the GRUB password.
Unfortunately, this solution does not prevent an attacker from booting into an insecure operating system in a dual-boot environment. For this, a different part of the
/boot/grub/grub.conf file must be edited.
Look for the
title line of the operating system that you want to secure, and add a line with the lock directive immediately beneath it.
For a DOS system, the stanza should begin similar to the following:
title DOS lock
Warning
A
password line must be present in the main section of the /boot/grub/grub.conf file for this method to work properly. Otherwise, an attacker can access the GRUB editor interface and remove the lock line.
To create a different password for a particular kernel or operating system, add a
lock line to the stanza, followed by a password line.
Each stanza protected with a unique password should begin with lines similar to the following example:
title DOS lock password --md5 <password-hash>
2.1.3.??Password Security
Passwords are the primary method that Fedora uses to verify a user's identity. This is why password security is so important for protection of the user, the workstation, and the network.
For security purposes, the installation program configures the system to use Message-Digest Algorithm (MD5) and shadow passwords. It is highly recommended that you do not alter these settings.
If MD5 passwords are deselected during installation, the older Data Encryption Standard (DES) format is used. This format limits passwords to eight alphanumeric characters (disallowing punctuation and other special characters), and provides a modest 56-bit level of encryption.
If shadow passwords are deselected during installation, all passwords are stored as a one-way hash in the world-readable
/etc/passwd file, which makes the system vulnerable to offline password cracking attacks. If an intruder can gain access to the machine as a regular user, he can copy the /etc/passwd file to his own machine and run any number of password cracking programs against it. If there is an insecure password in the file, it is only a matter of time before the password cracker discovers it.
Shadow passwords eliminate this type of attack by storing the password hashes in the file
/etc/shadow, which is readable only by the root user.
This forces a potential attacker to attempt password cracking remotely by logging into a network service on the machine, such as SSH or FTP. This sort of brute-force attack is much slower and leaves an obvious trail as hundreds of failed login attempts are written to system files. Of course, if the cracker starts an attack in the middle of the night on a system with weak passwords, the cracker may have gained access before dawn and edited the log files to cover his tracks.
In addition to format and storage considerations is the issue of content. The single most important thing a user can do to protect his account against a password cracking attack is create a strong password.
2.1.3.1.??Creating Strong Passwords
When creating a secure password, it is a good idea to follow these guidelines:
- Do Not Use Only Words or Numbers ??? Never use only numbers or words in a password.Some insecure examples include the following:
- 8675309
- juan
- hackme
- Do Not Use Recognizable Words ??? Words such as proper names, dictionary words, or even terms from television shows or novels should be avoided, even if they are bookended with numbers.Some insecure examples include the following:
- john1
- DS-9
- mentat123
- Do Not Use Words in Foreign Languages ??? Password cracking programs often check against word lists that encompass dictionaries of many languages. Relying on foreign languages for secure passwords is not secure.Some insecure examples include the following:
- cheguevara
- bienvenido1
- 1dumbKopf
- Do Not Use Hacker Terminology ??? If you think you are elite because you use hacker terminology ??? also called l337 (LEET) speak ??? in your password, think again. Many word lists include LEET speak.Some insecure examples include the following:
- H4X0R
- 1337
- Do Not Use Personal Information ??? Avoid using any personal information in your passwords. If the attacker knows your identity, the task of deducing your password becomes easier. The following is a list of the types of information to avoid when creating a password:Some insecure examples include the following:
- Your name
- The names of pets
- The names of family members
- Any birth dates
- Your phone number or zip code
- Do Not Invert Recognizable Words ??? Good password checkers always reverse common words, so inverting a bad password does not make it any more secure.Some insecure examples include the following:
- R0X4H
- nauj
- 9-DS
- Do Not Write Down Your Password ??? Never store a password on paper. It is much safer to memorize it.
- Do Not Use the Same Password For All Machines ??? It is important to make separate passwords for each machine. This way if one system is compromised, all of your machines are not immediately at risk.
The following guidelines will help you to create a strong password:
- Make the Password at Least Eight Characters Long ??? The longer the password, the better. If using MD5 passwords, it should be 15 characters or longer. With DES passwords, use the maximum length (eight characters).
- Mix Upper and Lower Case Letters ??? Fedora is case sensitive, so mix cases to enhance the strength of the password.
- Mix Letters and Numbers ??? Adding numbers to passwords, especially when added to the middle (not just at the beginning or the end), can enhance password strength.
- Include Non-Alphanumeric Characters ??? Special characters such as &, $, and > can greatly improve the strength of a password (this is not possible if using DES passwords).
- Pick a Password You Can Remember ??? The best password in the world does little good if you cannot remember it; use acronyms or other mnemonic devices to aid in memorizing passwords.
With all these rules, it may seem difficult to create a password that meets all of the criteria for good passwords while avoiding the traits of a bad one. Fortunately, there are some steps you can take to generate an easily-remembered, secure password.
2.1.3.1.1.??Secure Password Creation Methodology
There are many methods that people use to create secure passwords. One of the more popular methods involves acronyms. For example:
- Think of an easily-remembered phrase, such as:"over the river and through the woods, to grandmother's house we go."
- Next, turn it into an acronym (including the punctuation).
otrattw,tghwg. - Add complexity by substituting numbers and symbols for letters in the acronym. For example, substitute
7fortand the at symbol (@) fora:o7r at 77w,7ghwg. - Add more complexity by capitalizing at least one letter, such as
H.o7r at 77w,7gHwg. - Finally, do not use the example password above for any systems, ever.
While creating secure passwords is imperative, managing them properly is also important, especially for system administrators within larger organizations. The following section details good practices for creating and managing user passwords within an organization.
2.1.3.2.??Creating User Passwords Within an Organization
If an organization has a large number of users, the system administrators have two basic options available to force the use of good passwords. They can create passwords for the user, or they can let users create their own passwords, while verifying the passwords are of acceptable quality.
Creating the passwords for the users ensures that the passwords are good, but it becomes a daunting task as the organization grows. It also increases the risk of users writing their passwords down.
For these reasons, most system administrators prefer to have the users create their own passwords, but actively verify that the passwords are good and, in some cases, force users to change their passwords periodically through password aging.
2.1.3.2.1.??Forcing Strong Passwords
To protect the network from intrusion it is a good idea for system administrators to verify that the passwords used within an organization are strong ones. When users are asked to create or change passwords, they can use the command line application
passwd, which is Pluggable Authentication Manager (PAM) aware and therefore checks to see if the password is too short or otherwise easy to crack. This check is performed using the pam_cracklib.so PAM module. Since PAM is customizable, it is possible to add more password integrity checkers, such as pam_passwdqc (available from http://www.openwall.com/passwdqc/) or to write a new module. For a list of available PAM modules, refer to http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/libs/pam/mod
ules.html. For more information about PAM, refer to Section??2.4, ???Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)???.
The password check that is performed at the time of their creation does not discover bad passwords as effectively as running a password cracking program against the passwords.
Many password cracking programs are available that run under Fedora, although none ship with the operating system. Below is a brief list of some of the more popular password cracking programs:
- John The Ripper ??? A fast and flexible password cracking program. It allows the use of multiple word lists and is capable of brute-force password cracking. It is available online at http://www.openwall.com/john/.
- Crack ??? Perhaps the most well known password cracking software, Crack is also very fast, though not as easy to use as John The Ripper. It can be found online at http://www.crypticide.com/alecm/security/c50-faq.html.
- Slurpie ??? Slurpie is similar to John The Ripper and Crack, but it is designed to run on multiple computers simultaneously, creating a distributed password cracking attack. It can be found along with a number of other distributed attack security evaluation tools online at http://www.ussrback.com/distributed.htm.
Warning
Always get authorization in writing before attempting to crack passwords within an organization.
2.1.3.2.2.??Passphrases
Passphrases and passwords are the cornerstone to security in most of today's systems. Unfortunately, techniques such as biometrics and two-factor authentication have not yet become mainstream in many systems which has become a major problem. If passwords are going to be used to secure a system, then the use of passphrases should be considered. Passphrases are longer than passwords and provide better protection than a password even when implemented with non-standard characters such as numbers and symbols.
2.1.3.2.3.??Password Aging
Password aging is another technique used by system administrators to defend against bad passwords within an organization. Password aging means that after a specified period (usually 90 days), the user is prompted to create a new password. The theory behind this is that if a user is forced to change his password periodically, a cracked password is only useful to an intruder for a limited amount of time. The downside to password aging, however, is that users are more likely to write their passwords down.
There are two primary programs used to specify password aging under Fedora: the
chage command or the graphical User Manager (system-config-users) application.
The
-M option of the chage command specifies the maximum number of days the password is valid. For example, to set a user's password to expire in 90 days, use the following command:
chage -M 90 <username>
In the above command, replace
<username> with the name of the user. To disable password expiration, it is traditional to use a value of 99999 after the -M option (this equates to a little over 273 years).
You can also use the
chage command in interactive mode to modify multiple password aging and account details. Use the following command to enter interactive mode:
chage <username>
The following is a sample interactive session using this command:
[root at interch-dev1 ~]# chage davido Changing the aging information for davido Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default Minimum Password Age [0]: 10 Maximum Password Age [99999]: 90 Last Password Change (YYYY-MM-DD) [2006-08-18]: Password Expiration Warning [7]: Password Inactive [-1]: Account Expiration Date (YYYY-MM-DD) [1969-12-31]: [root at interch-dev1 ~]#
Refer to the man page for chage for more information on the available options.
You can also use the graphical User Manager application to create password aging policies, as follows. Note: you need Administrator privileges to perform this procedure.
- Click the menu on the Panel, point to and then click to display the User Manager. Alternatively, type the command
system-config-usersat a shell prompt. - Click the Users tab, and select the required user in the list of users.
- Click on the toolbar to display the User Properties dialog box (or choose on the menu).
- Click the Password Info tab, and select the check box for Enable password expiration.
- Enter the required value in the Days before change required field, and click .
Password Info pane illustration.
Figure??2.1.??Specifying password aging options
2.1.4.??Administrative Controls
When administering a home machine, the user must perform some tasks as the root user or by acquiring effective root privileges via a setuid program, such as
sudo or su. A setuid program is one that operates with the user ID (UID) of the program's owner rather than the user operating the program. Such programs are denoted by an s in the owner section of a long format listing, as in the following example:
-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 47324 May 1 08:09 /bin/su
Note
The
s may be upper case or lower case. If it appears as upper case, it means that the underlying permission bit has not been set.
For the system administrators of an organization, however, choices must be made as to how much administrative access users within the organization should have to their machine. Through a PAM module called
pam_console.so, some activities normally reserved only for the root user, such as rebooting and mounting removable media are allowed for the first user that logs in at the physical console (refer to Section??2.4, ???Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)??? for more information about the pam_console.so module.) However, other important system administration tasks, such as altering network settings, configuring a new mouse, or mounting network devices, are not possible without administrative privileges. As a result, system administrators must decide how much access the users
on their network should receive.
2.1.4.1.??Allowing Root Access
If the users within an organization are trusted and computer-literate, then allowing them root access may not be an issue. Allowing root access by users means that minor activities, like adding devices or configuring network interfaces, can be handled by the individual users, leaving system administrators free to deal with network security and other important issues.
On the other hand, giving root access to individual users can lead to the following issues:
- Machine Misconfiguration ??? Users with root access can misconfigure their machines and require assistance to resolve issues. Even worse, they might open up security holes without knowing it.
- Running Insecure Services ??? Users with root access might run insecure servers on their machine, such as FTP or Telnet, potentially putting usernames and passwords at risk. These services transmit this information over the network in plain text.
- Running Email Attachments As Root ??? Although rare, email viruses that affect Linux do exist. The only time they are a threat, however, is when they are run by the root user.
2.1.4.2.??Disallowing Root Access
If an administrator is uncomfortable allowing users to log in as root for these or other reasons, the root password should be kept secret, and access to runlevel one or single user mode should be disallowed through boot loader password protection (refer to Section??2.1.2.2, ???Boot Loader Passwords??? for more information on this topic.)
Table??2.1, ???Methods of Disabling the Root Account??? describes ways that an administrator can further ensure that root logins are disallowed:
| Method | Description | Effects | Does Not Affect | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Changing the root shell. |
Edit the /etc/passwd file and change the shell from /bin/bash to /sbin/nologin.
|
|
| |||||||||||||||
| Disabling root access via any console device (tty). |
An empty /etc/securetty file prevents root login on any devices attached to the computer.
|
|
| |||||||||||||||
| Disabling root SSH logins. |
Edit the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file and set the PermitRootLogin parameter to no.
|
|
| |||||||||||||||
| Use PAM to limit root access to services. |
Edit the file for the target service in the /etc/pam.d/ directory. Make sure the pam_listfile.so is required for authentication.[a]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||
[a] Refer to Section??2.1.4.2.4, ???Disabling Root Using PAM??? for details. | ||||||||||||||||||
Table??2.1.??Methods of Disabling the Root Account
2.1.4.2.1.??Disabling the Root Shell
To prevent users from logging in directly as root, the system administrator can set the root account's shell to
/sbin/nologin in the /etc/passwd file. This prevents access to the root account through commands that require a shell, such as the su and the ssh commands.
Important
Programs that do not require access to the shell, such as email clients or the
sudo command, can still access the root account.
2.1.4.2.2.??Disabling Root Logins
To further limit access to the root account, administrators can disable root logins at the console by editing the
/etc/securetty file. This file lists all devices the root user is allowed to log into. If the file does not exist at all, the root user can log in through any communication device on the system, whether via the console or a raw network interface. This is dangerous, because a user can log in to his machine as root via Telnet, which transmits the password in plain text over the network. By default, Fedora's /etc/securetty file only allows the root user to log in at the console physically attached to the machine. To prevent root from logging in, remove the contents of this file by typing the following command:
echo > /etc/securetty
Warning
A blank
/etc/securetty file does not prevent the root user from logging in remotely using the OpenSSH suite of tools because the console is not opened until after authentication.
2.1.4.2.3.??Disabling Root SSH Logins
Root logins via the SSH protocol are disabled by default in Fedora; however, if this option has been enabled, it can be disabled again by editing the SSH daemon's configuration file (
/etc/ssh/sshd_config). Change the line that reads:
PermitRootLogin yes
to read as follows:
PermitRootLogin no
For these changes to take effect, the SSH daemon must be restarted. This can be done via the following command:
kill -HUP `cat /var/run/sshd.pid`
2.1.4.2.4.??Disabling Root Using PAM
PAM, through the
/lib/security/pam_listfile.so module, allows great flexibility in denying specific accounts. The administrator can use this module to reference a list of users who are not allowed to log in. Below is an example of how the module is used for the vsftpd FTP server in the /etc/pam.d/vsftpd PAM configuration file (the \ character at the end of the first line in the following example is not necessary if the directive is on one line):
auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \ sense=deny file=/etc/vsftpd.ftpusers onerr=succeed
This instructs PAM to consult the
/etc/vsftpd.ftpusers file and deny access to the service for any listed user. The administrator can change the name of this file, and can keep separate lists for each service or use one central list to deny access to multiple services.
If the administrator wants to deny access to multiple services, a similar line can be added to the PAM configuration files, such as
/etc/pam.d/pop and /etc/pam.d/imap for mail clients, or /etc/pam.d/ssh for SSH clients.
For more information about PAM, refer to Section??2.4, ???Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)???.
2.1.4.3.??Limiting Root Access
Rather than completely denying access to the root user, the administrator may want to allow access only via setuid programs, such as
su or sudo.
2.1.4.3.1.??The su Command
When a user executes the
su command, they are prompted for the root password and, after authentication, is given a root shell prompt.
Once logged in via the
su command, the user is the root user and has absolute administrative access to the system[13]. In addition, once a user has become root, it is possible for them to use the su command to change to any other user on the system without being prompted for a password.
Because this program is so powerful, administrators within an organization may wish to limit who has access to the command.
One of the simplest ways to do this is to add users to the special administrative group called wheel. To do this, type the following command as root:
usermod -G wheel <username>
In the previous command, replace
<username> with the username you want to add to the wheel group.
You can also use the User Manager to modify group memberships, as follows. Note: you need Administrator privileges to perform this procedure.
- Click the menu on the Panel, point to and then click to display the User Manager. Alternatively, type the command
system-config-usersat a shell prompt. - Click the Users tab, and select the required user in the list of users.
- Click on the toolbar to display the User Properties dialog box (or choose on the menu).
- Click the Groups tab, select the check box for the wheel group, and then click . Refer to Figure??2.2, ???Adding users to the "wheel" group.???.
- Open the PAM configuration file for
su(/etc/pam.d/su) in a text editor and remove the comment # from the following line:auth required /lib/security/$ISA/pam_wheel.so use_uid
This change means that only members of the administrative groupwheelcan use this program.
Groups pane illustration
Figure??2.2.??Adding users to the "wheel" group.
Note
The root user is part of the
wheel group by default.
2.1.4.3.2.??The sudo Command
The
sudo command offers another approach to giving users administrative access. When trusted users precede an administrative command with sudo, they are prompted for their own password. Then, when they have been authenticated and assuming that the command is permitted, the administrative command is executed as if they were the root user.
The basic format of the
sudo command is as follows:
sudo <command>
In the above example,
<command> would be replaced by a command normally reserved for the root user, such as mount.
Important
Users of the
sudo command should take extra care to log out before walking away from their machines since sudoers can use the command again without being asked for a password within a five minute period. This setting can be altered via the configuration file, /etc/sudoers.
The
sudo command allows for a high degree of flexibility. For instance, only users listed in the /etc/sudoers configuration file are allowed to use the sudo command and the command is executed in the user's shell, not a root shell. This means the root shell can be completely disabled, as shown in Section??2.1.4.2.1, ???Disabling the Root Shell???.
The
sudo command also provides a comprehensive audit trail. Each successful authentication is logged to the file /var/log/messages and the command issued along with the issuer's user name is logged to the file /var/log/secure.
Another advantage of the
sudo command is that an administrator can allow different users access to specific commands based on their needs.
Administrators wanting to edit the
sudo configuration file, /etc/sudoers, should use the visudo command.
To give someone full administrative privileges, type
visudo and add a line similar to the following in the user privilege specification section:
juan ALL=(ALL) ALL
This example states that the user,
juan, can use sudo from any host and execute any command.
The example below illustrates the granularity possible when configuring
sudo:
%users localhost=/sbin/shutdown -h now
This example states that any user can issue the command
/sbin/shutdown -h now as long as it is issued from the console.
The man page for
sudoers has a detailed listing of options for this file.
2.1.5.??Available Network Services
While user access to administrative controls is an important issue for system administrators within an organization, monitoring which network services are active is of paramount importance to anyone who administers and operates a Linux system.
Many services under Fedora behave as network servers. If a network service is running on a machine, then a server application (called a daemon), is listening for connections on one or more network ports. Each of these servers should be treated as a potential avenue of attack.
2.1.5.1.??Risks To Services
Network services can pose many risks for Linux systems. Below is a list of some of the primary issues:
- Denial of Service Attacks (DoS) ??? By flooding a service with requests, a denial of service attack can render a system unusable as it tries to log and answer each request.
- Script Vulnerability Attacks ??? If a server is using scripts to execute server-side actions, as Web servers commonly do, a cracker can attack improperly written scripts. These script vulnerability attacks can lead to a buffer overflow condition or allow the attacker to alter files on the system.
- Buffer Overflow Attacks ??? Services that connect to ports numbered 0 through 1023 must run as an administrative user. If the application has an exploitable buffer overflow, an attacker could gain access to the system as the user running the daemon. Because exploitable buffer overflows exist, crackers use automated tools to identify systems with vulnerabilities, and once they have gained access, they use automated rootkits to maintain their access to the system.
Note
The threat of buffer overflow vulnerabilities is mitigated in Fedora by ExecShield, an executable memory segmentation and protection technology supported by x86-compatible uni- and multi-processor kernels. ExecShield reduces the risk of buffer overflow by separating virtual memory into executable and non-executable segments. Any program code that tries to execute outside of the executable segment (such as malicious code injected from a buffer overflow exploit) triggers a segmentation fault and terminates.
Execshield also includes support for No eXecute (NX) technology on AMD64 platforms and eXecute Disable (XD) technology on Itanium and Intel?? 64 systems. These technologies work in conjunction with ExecShield to prevent malicious code from running in the executable portion of virtual memory with a granularity of 4KB of executable code, lowering the risk of attack from stealthy buffer overflow exploits.
Important
To limit exposure to attacks over the network, all services that are unused should be turned off.
2.1.5.2.??Identifying and Configuring Services
To enhance security, most network services installed with Fedora are turned off by default. There are, however, some notable exceptions:
cupsd??? The default print server for Fedora.lpd??? An alternative print server.xinetd??? A super server that controls connections to a range of subordinate servers, such asgssftpandtelnet.sendmail??? The Sendmail Mail Transport Agent (MTA) is enabled by default, but only listens for connections from the localhost.sshd??? The OpenSSH server, which is a secure replacement for Telnet.
When determining whether to leave these services running, it is best to use common sense and err on the side of caution. For example, if a printer is not available, do not leave
cupsd running. The same is true for portmap. If you do not mount NFSv3 volumes or use NIS (the ypbind service), then portmap should be disabled.
Services Configuration Tool illustration
Figure??2.3.??Services Configuration Tool
If unsure of the purpose for a particular service, the Services Configuration Tool has a description field, illustrated in Figure??2.3, ???Services Configuration Tool???, that provides additional information.
Checking which network services are available to start at boot time is only part of the story. You should also check which ports are open and listening. Refer to Section??2.2.8, ???Verifying Which Ports Are Listening??? for more information.
2.1.5.3.??Insecure Services
Potentially, any network service is insecure. This is why turning off unused services is so important. Exploits for services are routinely revealed and patched, making it very important to regularly update packages associated with any network service. Refer to Section??1.5, ???Security Updates??? for more information.
Some network protocols are inherently more insecure than others. These include any services that:
- Transmit Usernames and Passwords Over a Network Unencrypted ??? Many older protocols, such as Telnet and FTP, do not encrypt the authentication session and should be avoided whenever possible.
- Transmit Sensitive Data Over a Network Unencrypted ??? Many protocols transmit data over the network unencrypted. These protocols include Telnet, FTP, HTTP, and SMTP. Many network file systems, such as NFS and SMB, also transmit information over the network unencrypted. It is the user's responsibility when using these protocols to limit what type of data is transmitted.Remote memory dump services, like
netdump, transmit the contents of memory over the network unencrypted. Memory dumps can contain passwords or, even worse, database entries and other sensitive information.Other services likefingerandrwhodreveal information about users of the system.
Examples of inherently insecure services include
rlogin, rsh, telnet, and vsftpd.
All remote login and shell programs (
rlogin, rsh, and telnet) should be avoided in favor of SSH. Refer to Section??2.1.7, ???Security Enhanced Communication Tools??? for more information about sshd.
FTP is not as inherently dangerous to the security of the system as remote shells, but FTP servers must be carefully configured and monitored to avoid problems. Refer to Section??2.2.6, ???Securing FTP??? for more information about securing FTP servers.
Services that should be carefully implemented and behind a firewall include:
fingerauthd(this was calledidentdin previous Fedora releases.)netdumpnetdump-servernfsrwhodsendmailsmb(Samba)yppasswddypservypxfrd
More information on securing network services is available in Section??2.2, ???Server Security???.
The next section discusses tools available to set up a simple firewall.
2.1.6.??Personal Firewalls
After the necessary network services are configured, it is important to implement a firewall.
Important
You should configure the necessary services and implement a firewall before connecting to the Internet or any other network that you do not trust.
Firewalls prevent network packets from accessing the system's network interface. If a request is made to a port that is blocked by a firewall, the request is ignored. If a service is listening on one of these blocked ports, it does not receive the packets and is effectively disabled. For this reason, care should be taken when configuring a firewall to block access to ports not in use, while not blocking access to ports used by configured services.
For most users, the best tool for configuring a simple firewall is the graphical firewall configuration tool which ships with Fedora: the Firewall Configuration Tool (
system-config-firewall). This tool creates broad iptables rules for a general-purpose firewall using a control panel interface.
Refer to Section??2.8.2, ???Basic Firewall Configuration??? for more information about using this application and its available options.
For advanced users and server administrators, manually configuring a firewall with
iptables is probably a better option. Refer to Section??2.8, ???Firewalls??? for more information. Refer to Section??2.9, ???IPTables??? for a comprehensive guide to the iptables command.
2.1.7.??Security Enhanced Communication Tools
As the size and popularity of the Internet has grown, so has the threat of communication interception. Over the years, tools have been developed to encrypt communications as they are transferred over the network.
Fedora ships with two basic tools that use high-level, public-key-cryptography-based encryption algorithms to protect information as it travels over the network.
- OpenSSH ??? A free implementation of the SSH protocol for encrypting network communication.
- Gnu Privacy Guard (GPG) ??? A free implementation of the PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) encryption application for encrypting data.
OpenSSH is a safer way to access a remote machine and replaces older, unencrypted services like
telnet and rsh. OpenSSH includes a network service called sshd and three command line client applications:
ssh??? A secure remote console access client.scp??? A secure remote copy command.sftp??? A secure pseudo-ftp client that allows interactive file transfer sessions.
Refer to Section??3.6, ???Secure Shell??? for more information regarding OpenSSH.
Important
Although the
sshd service is inherently secure, the service must be kept up-to-date to prevent security threats. Refer to Section??1.5, ???Security Updates??? for more information.
GPG is one way to ensure private email communication. It can be used both to email sensitive data over public networks and to protect sensitive data on hard drives.
[11] Since system BIOSes differ between manufacturers, some may not support password protection of either type, while others may support one type but not the other.
[12] GRUB also accepts unencrypted passwords, but it is recommended that an MD5 hash be used for added security.
[13] This access is still subject to the restrictions imposed by SELinux, if it is enabled.
Chapter??1.??Security Overview
Because of the increased reliance on powerful, networked computers to help run businesses and keep track of our personal information, entire industries have been formed around the practice of network and computer security. Enterprises have solicited the knowledge and skills of security experts to properly audit systems and tailor solutions to fit the operating requirements of the organization. Because most organizations are increasingly dynamic in nature, with workers accessing company IT resources locally and remotely, the need for secure computing environments has become more pronounced.
Unfortunately, most organizations (as well as individual users) regard security as an afterthought, a process that is overlooked in favor of increased power, productivity, and budgetary concerns. Proper security implementation is often enacted postmortem ??? after an unauthorized intrusion has already occurred. Security experts agree that taking the correct measures prior to connecting a site to an untrusted network, such as the Internet, is an effective means of thwarting most attempts at intrusion.
1.1.??Introduction to Security
1.1.1.??What is Computer Security?
Computer security is a general term that covers a wide area of computing and information processing. Industries that depend on computer systems and networks to conduct daily business transactions and access crucial information regard their data as an important part of their overall assets. Several terms and metrics have entered our daily business vocabulary, such as total cost of ownership (TCO) and quality of service (QoS). Using these metrics, industries can calculate aspects such as data integrity and high-availability as part of their planning and process management costs. In some industries, such as electronic commerce, the availability and trustworthiness of data can be the difference between success and failure.
1.1.1.1.??How did Computer Security Come about?
Information security has evolved over the years due to the increasing reliance on public networks not to disclose personal, financial, and other restricted information. There are numerous instances such as the Mitnick [1]and the Vladimir Levin [2]cases that prompted organizations across all industries to re-think the way they handle information, as well as its transmission and disclosure. The popularity of the Internet was one of the most important developments that prompted an intensified effort in data security.
An ever-growing number of people are using their personal computers to gain access to the resources that the Internet has to offer. From research and information retrieval to electronic mail and commerce transaction, the Internet has been regarded as one of the most important developments of the 20th century.
The Internet and its earlier protocols, however, were developed as a trust-based system. That is, the Internet Protocol was not designed to be secure in itself. There are no approved security standards built into the TCP/IP communications stack, leaving it open to potentially malicious users and processes across the network. Modern developments have made Internet communication more secure, but there are still several incidents that gain national attention and alert us to the fact that nothing is completely safe.
1.1.1.2.??Security Today
In February of 2000, a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack was unleashed on several of the most heavily-trafficked sites on the Internet. The attack rendered yahoo.com, cnn.com, amazon.com, fbi.gov, and several other sites completely unreachable to normal users, as it tied up routers for several hours with large-byte ICMP packet transfers, also called a ping flood. The attack was brought on by unknown assailants using specially created, widely available programs that scanned vulnerable network servers, installed client applications called trojans on the servers, and timed an attack with every infected server flooding the victim sites and rendering them unavailable. Many blame the attack on fundamental flaws in the way routers and the protocols used are structured to accept all incoming data, no matter where or for what purpose the packets are sent.
In 2007, a data breach exploiting the widely-known weaknesses of the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) wireless encryption protocol resulted in the theft from a global financial institution of over 45 million credit card numbers.[3]
In a separate incident, the billing records of over 2.2 million patients stored on a backup tape were stolen from the front seat of a courier's car.[4]
Currently, an estimated 1.4 billion people use or have used the Internet worldwide.[5] At the same time:
- On any given day, there are approximately 225 major incidences of security breach reported to the CERT Coordination Center at Carnegie Mellon University.[6]
- In 2003, the number of CERT reported incidences jumped to 137,529 from 82,094 in 2002 and from 52,658 in 2001.[7]
- The worldwide economic impact of the three most dangerous Internet Viruses of the last three years was estimated at US$13.2 Billion.[8]
From a 2008 global survey of business and technology executives "The Global State of Information Security"[9], undertaken by CIO Magazine, some points are:
- Just 43% of respondents audit or monitor user compliance with security policies
- Only 22% keep an inventory of the outside companies that use their data
- The source of nearly half of security incidents was marked as "Unknown"
- 44% of respondents plan to increase security spending in the next year
- 59% have an information security strategy
These results enforce the reality that computer security has become a quantifiable and justifiable expense for IT budgets. Organizations that require data integrity and high availability elicit the skills of system administrators, developers, and engineers to ensure 24x7 reliability of their systems, services, and information. Falling victim to malicious users, processes, or coordinated attacks is a direct threat to the success of the organization.
Unfortunately, system and network security can be a difficult proposition, requiring an intricate knowledge of how an organization regards, uses, manipulates, and transmits its information. Understanding the way an organization (and the people that make up the organization) conducts business is paramount to implementing a proper security plan.
1.1.1.3.??Standardizing Security
Enterprises in every industry rely on regulations and rules that are set by standards-making bodies such as the American Medical Association (AMA) or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The same ideals hold true for information security. Many security consultants and vendors agree upon the standard security model known as CIA, or Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. This three-tiered model is a generally accepted component to assessing risks of sensitive information and establishing security policy. The following describes the CIA model in further detail:
- Confidentiality ??? Sensitive information must be available only to a set of pre-defined individuals. Unauthorized transmission and usage of information should be restricted. For example, confidentiality of information ensures that a customer's personal or financial information is not obtained by an unauthorized individual for malicious purposes such as identity theft or credit fraud.
- Integrity ??? Information should not be altered in ways that render it incomplete or incorrect. Unauthorized users should be restricted from the ability to modify or destroy sensitive information.
- Availability ??? Information should be accessible to authorized users any time that it is needed. Availability is a warranty that information can be obtained with an agreed-upon frequency and timeliness. This is often measured in terms of percentages and agreed to formally in Service Level Agreements (SLAs) used by network service providers and their enterprise clients.
1.1.2.??SELinux
Fedora includes an enhancement to the Linux kernel called SELinux, which implements a Mandatory Access Control (MAC) architecture that provides a fine-grained level of control over files, processes, users and applications in the system. Detailed discussion of SELinux is beyond the scope of this document; however, for more information on SELinux and its use in Fedora, refer to the Fedora SELinux User Guide available at http://docs.fedoraproject.org/selinux-user-guide/. Other available resources for SELinux are listed in Chapter??7, References.
1.1.3.??Security Controls
Computer security is often divided into three distinct master categories, commonly referred to as controls:
- Physical
- Technical
- Administrative
These three broad categories define the main objectives of proper security implementation. Within these controls are sub-categories that further detail the controls and how to implement them.
1.1.3.1.??Physical Controls
Physical control is the implementation of security measures in a defined structure used to deter or prevent unauthorized access to sensitive material. Examples of physical controls are:
- Closed-circuit surveillance cameras
- Motion or thermal alarm systems
- Security guards
- Picture IDs
- Locked and dead-bolted steel doors
- Biometrics (includes fingerprint, voice, face, iris, handwriting, and other automated methods used to recognize individuals)
1.1.3.2.??Technical Controls
Technical controls use technology as a basis for controlling the access and usage of sensitive data throughout a physical structure and over a network. Technical controls are far-reaching in scope and encompass such technologies as:
- Encryption
- Smart cards
- Network authentication
- Access control lists (ACLs)
- File integrity auditing software
1.1.3.3.??Administrative Controls
Administrative controls define the human factors of security. They involve all levels of personnel within an organization and determine which users have access to what resources and information by such means as:
- Training and awareness
- Disaster preparedness and recovery plans
- Personnel recruitment and separation strategies
- Personnel registration and accounting
1.1.4.??Conclusion
Now that you have learned about the origins, reasons, and aspects of security, you will find it easier to determine the appropriate course of action with regard to Fedora. It is important to know what factors and conditions make up security in order to plan and implement a proper strategy. With this information in mind, the process can be formalized and the path becomes clearer as you delve deeper into the specifics of the security process.
[1] http://law.jrank.org/pages/3791/Kevin-Mitnick-Case-1999.html
[2] http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ia_hackers_levin.htm
[3] http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/05/04/txj_nonfeasance/
[4] http://www.healthcareitnews.com/story.cms?id=9408
[5] http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
[6] http://www.cert.org
[7] http://www.cert.org/stats/fullstats.html
[8] http://www.newsfactor.com/perl/story/16407.html
[9] http://www.csoonline.com/article/454939/The_Global_State_of_Information_Security_
Chapter??6.??Software Maintenance
Software maintenance is extremely important to maintaining a secure system. It is vital to patch software as soon as it becomes available in order to prevent attackers from using known holes to infiltrate your system.
6.1.??Install Minimal Software
It is best practice to install only the packages you will use because each piece of software on your computer could possibly contain a vulnerability. If you are installing from the DVD media take the opportunity to select exactly what packages you want to install during the installation. When you find you need another package, you can always add it to the system later.
fedora 11
security-guide
A Guide to Securing Fedora Linux
Edition 1.0
Legal Notice
Copyright ?? 2008 Red Hat, Inc. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstract
The Linux Security Guide is designed to assist users of Linux in
learning the processes and practices of securing workstations and
servers against local and remote intrusion, exploitation, and
malicious activity. The Linux Security Guide details the planning
and the tools involved in creating a secured computing environment
for the data center, workplace, and home. With proper
administrative knowledge, vigilance, and tools, systems running
Linux can be both fully functional and secured from most common
intrusion and exploit methods.
- Preface
- 1. Security Overview
- 2. Securing Your Network
- 2.1. Workstation Security
- 2.2. Server Security
- 2.3. Single Sign-on (SSO)
- 2.4. Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)
- 2.5. TCP Wrappers and xinetd
- 2.6. Kerberos
- 2.6.1. What is Kerberos?
- 2.6.2. Kerberos Terminology
- 2.6.3. How Kerberos Works
- 2.6.4. Kerberos and PAM
- 2.6.5. Configuring a Kerberos 5 Server
- 2.6.6. Configuring a Kerberos 5 Client
- 2.6.7. Domain-to-Realm Mapping
- 2.6.8. Setting Up Secondary KDCs
- 2.6.9. Setting Up Cross Realm Authentication
- 2.6.10. Additional Resources
- 2.7. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
- 2.8. Firewalls
- 2.9. IPTables
- 3. Encryption
- 4. General Principles of Information Security
- 5. Secure Ins tallation
- 6. Software Maintenance
- 7. References
Preface
1.??Document Conventions
This manual uses several conventions to highlight certain words and phrases and draw attention to specific pieces of information.
In PDF and paper editions, this manual uses typefaces drawn from the Liberation Fonts set. The Liberation Fonts set is also used in HTML editions if the set is installed on your system. If not, alternative but equivalent typefaces are displayed. Note: Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and later includes the Liberation Fonts set by default.
1.1.??Typographic Conventions
Four typographic conventions are used to call attention to specific words and phrases. These conventions, and the circumstances they apply to, are as follows.
Mono-spaced Bold
Used to highlight system input, including shell commands, file names and paths. Also used to highlight key caps and key-combinations. For example:
To see the contents of the filemy_next_bestselling_novelin your current working directory, enter thecat my_next_bestselling_novelcommand at the shell prompt and press Enter to execute the command.
The above includes a file name, a shell command and a key cap, all presented in Mono-spaced Bold and all distinguishable thanks to context.
Key-combinations can be distinguished from key caps by the hyphen connecting each part of a key-combination. For example:
Press Enter to execute the command.Press Ctrl+Alt+F1 to switch to the first virtual terminal. Press Ctrl+Alt+F7 to return to your X-Windows session.
The first sentence highlights the particular key cap to press. The second highlights two sets of three key caps, each set pressed simultaneously.
If source code is discussed, class names, methods, functions, variable names and returned values mentioned within a paragraph will be presented as above, in
Mono-spaced Bold. For example:
File-related classes includefilesystemfor file systems,filefor files, anddirfor directories. Each class has its own associated set of permissions.
Proportional Bold
This denotes words or phrases encountered on a system, including application names; dialogue box text; labelled buttons; check-box and radio button labels; menu titles and sub-menu titles. For example:
Choose from the main menu bar to launch Mouse Preferences. In the Buttons tab, click the Left-handed mouse check box and click to switch the primary mouse button from the left to the right (making the mouse suitable for use in the left hand).To insert a special character into a gedit file, choose from the main menu bar. Next, choose from the Character Map menu bar, type the name of the character in the Search field and click . The character you sought will be highlighted in the Character Table. Double-click this highlighted character to place it in the Text to copy field and then click the button. Now switch back to your document and choose from the < span class="application">gedit menu bar.
The above text includes application names; system-wide menu names and items; application-specific menu names; and buttons and text found within a GUI interface, all presented in Proportional Bold and all distinguishable by context.
Note the shorthand used to indicate traversal through a menu and its sub-menus. This is to avoid the difficult-to-follow 'Select from the sub-menu in the menu of the main menu bar' approach.
Mono-spaced Bold ItalicProportional Bold Italic
Whether Mono-spaced Bold or Proportional Bold, the addition of Italics indicates replaceable or variable text. Italics denotes text you do not input literally or displayed text that changes depending on circumstance. For example:
To connect to a remote machine using ssh, typesshat a shell prompt. If the remote machine isusername@domain.nameexample.comand your username on that machine is john, typessh john at example.com.Themount -o remountcommand remounts the named file system. For example, to remount thefile-system/homefile system, the command ismount -o remount /home.To see the version of a currently installed package, use therpm -qcommand. It will return a result as follows:package.package-version-release
Note the words in bold italics above ??? username, domain.name, file-system, package, version and release. Each word is a placeholder, either for text you enter when issuing a command or for text displayed by the system.
Aside from standard usage for presenting the title of a work, italics denotes the first use of a new and important term. For example:
When the Apache HTTP Server accepts requests, it dispatches child processes or threads to handle them. This group of child processes or threads is known as a server-pool. Under Apache HTTP Server 2.0, the responsibility for creating and maintaining these server-pools has been abstracted to a group of modules called Multi-Processing Modules (MPMs). Unlike other modules, only one module from the MPM group can be loaded by the Apache HTTP Server.
1.2.??Pull-quote Conventions
Two, commonly multi-line, data types are set off visually from the surrounding text.
Output sent to a terminal is set in
Mono-spaced Roman and presented thus:
books Desktop documentation drafts mss photos stuff svn books_tests Desktop1 downloads images notes scripts svgs
Source-code listings are also set in
Mono-spaced Roman but are presented and highlighted as follows:
package org.jboss.book.jca.ex1;
import javax.naming.InitialContext;
public class ExClient
{
public static void main(String args[])
throws Exception
{
InitialContext iniCtx = new InitialContext();
Object ref = iniCtx.lookup("EchoBean");
EchoHome home = (EchoHome) ref;
Echo echo = home.create();
System.out.println("Created Echo");
System.out.println("Echo.echo('Hello') = " + echo.echo("Hello"));
}
}
1.3.??Notes and Warnings
Finally, we use three visual styles to draw attention to information that might otherwise be overlooked.
Note
A Note is a tip or shortcut or alternative approach to the task at hand. Ignoring a note should have no negative consequences, but you might miss out on a trick that makes your life easier.
Important
Important boxes detail things that are easily missed: configuration changes that only apply to the current session, or services that need restarting before an update will apply. Ignoring Important boxes won't cause data loss but may cause irritation and frustration.
Warning
A Warning should not be ignored. Ignoring warnings will most likely cause data loss.
2.5.5.3.??Related Books
- Hacking Linux Exposed by Brian Hatch, James Lee, and George Kurtz; Osbourne/McGraw-Hill ??? An excellent security resource with information about TCP Wrappers and
xinetd.
2.8.9.3.??Related Documentation
- Red Hat Linux Firewalls, by Bill McCarty; Red Hat Press ??? a comprehensive reference to building network and server firewalls using open source packet filtering technology such as Netfilter and
iptables. It includes topics that cover analyzing firewall logs, developing firewall rules, and customizing your firewall using various graphical tools. - Linux Firewalls, by Robert Ziegler; New Riders Press ??? contains a wealth of information on building firewalls using both 2.2 kernel
ipchainsas well as Netfilter andiptables. Additional security topics such as remote access issues and intrusion detection systems are also covered.
2.8.9.2.??Useful Firewall Websites
- http://www.netfilter.org/ ??? The official homepage of the Netfilter and
iptablesproject. - http://www.tldp.org/ ??? The Linux Documentation Project contains several useful guides relating to firewall creation and administration.
- http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers ??? The official list of registered and common service ports as assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.
2.9.7.2.??Useful IP Tables Websites
- http://www.netfilter.org/ ??? The home of the netfilter/iptables project. Contains assorted information about
iptables, including a FAQ addressing specific problems and various helpful guides by Rusty Russell, the Linux IP firewall maintainer. The HOWTO documents on the site cover subjects such as basic networking concepts, kernel packet filtering, and NAT configurations. - http://www.linuxnewbie.org/nhf/Security/IPtables_Basics.html ??? An introduction to the way packets move through the Linux kernel, plus an introduction to constructing basic
iptablescommands.
2.6.10.2.??Useful Kerberos Websites
- http://web.mit.edu/kerberos/www/ ??? Kerberos: The Network Authentication Protocol webpage from MIT.
- http://www.nrl.navy.mil/CCS/people/kenh/kerberos-faq.html ??? The Kerberos Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ).
- ftp://athena-dist.mit.edu/pub/kerberos/doc/usenix.PS ??? The PostScript version of Kerberos: An Authentication Service for Open Network Systems by Jennifer G. Steiner, Clifford Neuman, and Jeffrey I. Schiller. This document is the original paper describing Kerberos.
- http://web.mit.edu/kerberos/www/dialogue.html ??? Designing an Authentication System: a Dialogue in Four Scenes originally by Bill Bryant in 1988, modified by Theodore Ts'o in 1997. This document is a conversation between two developers who are thinking through the creation of a Kerberos-style authentication system. The conversational style of the discussion make this a good starting place for people who are completely unfamiliar with Kerberos.
- http://www.ornl.gov/~jar/HowToKerb.html ??? How to Kerberize your site is a good reference for kerberizing a network.
- http://www.networkcomputing.com/netdesign/kerb1.html ??? Kerberos Network Design Manual is a thorough overview of the Kerberos system.
2.4.8.2.??Useful PAM Websites
- http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/libs/pam/ ??? The primary distribution website for the Linux-PAM project, containing information on various PAM modules, a FAQ, and additional PAM documentation.
Note
The documentation in the above website is for the last released upstream version of PAM and might not be 100% accurate for the PAM version included in Fedora.
2.5.5.2.??Useful TCP Wrappers Websites
- http://www.xinetd.org/ ??? The home of
xinetd, containing sample configuration files, a full listing of features, and an informative FAQ. - http://www.docstoc.com/docs/2133633/An-Unofficial-Xinetd-Tutorial ??? A thorough tutorial that discusses many different ways to optimize default
xinetdconfiguration files to meet specific security goals.
2.5.4.3.2.??Access Control Options
Users of
xinetd services can choose to use the TCP Wrappers hosts access rules, provide access control via the xinetd configuration files, or a mixture of both. Refer to Section??2.5.2, ???TCP Wrappers Configuration Files??? for more information about TCP Wrappers hosts access control files.
This section discusses using
xinetd to control access to services.
Note
Unlike TCP Wrappers, changes to access control only take effect if the
xinetd administrator restarts the xinetd service.
Also, unlike TCP Wrappers, access control through
xinetd only affects services controlled by xinetd.
The
xinetd hosts access control differs from the method used by TCP Wrappers. While TCP Wrappers places all of the access configuration within two files, /etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny, xinetd's access control is found in each service's configuration file in the /etc/xinetd.d/ directory.
The following hosts access options are supported by
xinetd:
only_from??? Allows only the specified hosts to use the service.no_access??? Blocks listed hosts from using the service.access_times??? Specifies the time range when a particular service may be used. The time range must be stated in 24-hour format notation, HH:MM-HH:MM.
The
only_from and no_access options can use a list of IP addresses or host names, or can specify an entire network. Like TCP Wrappers, combining xinetd access control with the enhanced logging configuration can increase security by blocking requests from banned hosts while verbosely recording each connection attempt.
For example, the following
/etc/xinetd.d/telnet file can be used to block Telnet access from a particular network group and restrict the overall time range that even allowed users can log in:
service telnet
{
disable = no
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/kerberos/sbin/telnetd
log_on_failure += USERID
no_access = 172.16.45.0/24
log_on_success += PID HOST EXIT
access_times = 09:45-16:15
}
In this example, when a client system from the
10.0.1.0/24 network, such as 10.0.1.2, tries to access the Telnet service, it receives the following message:
Connection closed by foreign host.
In addition, their login attempts are logged in
/var/log/messages as follows:
Sep 7 14:58:33 localhost xinetd[5285]: FAIL: telnet address from=172.16.45.107 Sep 7 14:58:33 localhost xinetd[5283]: START: telnet pid=5285 from=172.16.45.107 Sep 7 14:58:33 localhost xinetd[5283]: EXIT: telnet status=0 pid=5285 duration=0(sec)
When using TCP Wrappers in conjunction with
xinetd access controls, it is important to understand the relationship between the two access control mechanisms.
The following is the sequence of events followed by
xinetd when a client requests a connection:
- The
xinetddaemon accesses the TCP Wrappers hosts access rules using alibwrap.alibrary call. If a deny rule matches the client, the connection is dropped. If an allow rule matches the client, the connection is passed toxinetd. - The
xinetddaemon checks its own access control rules both for thexinetdservice and the requested service. If a deny rule matches the client, the connection is dropped. Otherwise,xinetdstarts an instance of the requested service and passes control of the connection to that service.
Important
Care should be taken when using TCP Wrappers access controls in conjunction with
xinetd access controls. Misconfiguration can cause undesirable effects.
- Prev2.5.4.3.??Altering xinetd Configuration Files
- Up
- Home
- Next2.5.4.3.3.??Binding and Redirection Options
2.5.4.3.3.??Binding and Redirection Options
The service configuration files for
xinetd support binding the service to an IP address and redirecting incoming requests for that service to another IP address, hostname, or port.
Binding is controlled with the
bind option in the service-specific configuration files and links the service to one IP address on the system. When this is configured, the bind option only allows requests to the correct IP address to access the service. You can use this method to bind different services to different network interfaces based on requirements.
This is particularly useful for systems with multiple network adapters or with multiple IP addresses. On such a system, insecure services (for example, Telnet), can be configured to listen only on the interface connected to a private network and not to the interface connected to the Internet.
The
redirect option accepts an IP address or hostname followed by a port number. It configures the service to redirect any requests for this service to the specified host and port number. This feature can be used to point to another port number on the same system, redirect the request to a different IP address on the same machine, shift the request to a totally different system and port number, or any combination of these options. A user connecting to a certain service on a system may therefore be rerouted to another system without disruption.
The
xinetd daemon is able to accomplish this redirection by spawning a process that stays alive for the duration of the connection between the requesting client machine and the host actually providing the service, transferring data between the two systems.
The advantages of the
bind and redirect options are most clearly evident when they are used together. By binding a service to a particular IP address on a system and then redirecting requests for this service to a second machine that only the first machine can see, an internal system can be used to provide services for a totally different network. Alternatively, these options can be used to limit the exposure of a particular service on a multi-homed machine to a known IP address, as well as redirect any requests for that service to another machine especially configured for that purpose.
For example, consider a system that is used as a firewall with this setting for its Telnet service:
service telnet
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
server = /usr/kerberos/sbin/telnetd
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
bind = 123.123.123.123
redirect = 10.0.1.13 23
}
The
bind and redirect options in this file ensure that the Telnet service on the machine is bound to the external IP address (123.123.123.123), the one facing the Internet. In addition, any requests for Telnet service sent to 123.123.123.123 are redirected via a second network adapter to an internal IP address (10.0.1.13) that only the firewall and internal systems can access. The firewall then sends the communication between the two systems, and the connecting system thinks it is connected to 123.123.123.123 when it is actually connected to a different machine.
This feature is particularly useful for users with broadband connections and only one fixed IP address. When using Network Address Translation (NAT), the systems behind the gateway machine, which are using internal-only IP addresses, are not available from outside the gateway system. However, when certain services controlled by
xinetd are configured with the bind and redirect options, the gateway machine can act as a proxy between outside systems and a particular internal machine configured to provide the service. In addition, the various xinetd access control and logging options are also available for additional protection.
2.5.4.3.4.??Resource Management Options
The
xinetd daemon can add a basic level of protection from Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. The following is a list of directives which can aid in limiting the effectiveness of such attacks:
per_source??? Defines the maximum number of instances for a service per source IP address. It accepts only integers as an argument and can be used in bothxinetd.confand in the service-specific configuration files in thexinetd.d/directory.cps??? Defines the maximum number of connections per second. This directive takes two integer arguments separated by white space. The first argument is the maximum number of connections allowed to the service per second. The second argument is the number of seconds thatxinetdmust wait before re-enabling the service. It accepts only integers as arguments and can be used in either thexinetd.conffile or the service-specific configuration files in thexinetd.d/directory.max_load??? Defines the CPU usage or load average threshold for a service. It accepts a floating point number argument.The load average is a rough measure of how many processes are active at a given time. See theuptime,who, andprocinfocommands for more information about load average.
There are more resource management options available for
xinetd. Refer to the xinetd.conf man page for more information.
1.3.2.??Threats to Network Security
Bad practices when configuring the following aspects of a network can increase the risk of attack.
1.3.2.1.??Insecure Architectures
A misconfigured network is a primary entry point for unauthorized users. Leaving a trust-based, open local network vulnerable to the highly-insecure Internet is much like leaving a door ajar in a crime-ridden neighborhood ??? nothing may happen for an arbitrary amount of time, but eventually someone exploits the opportunity.
1.3.2.1.1.??Broadcast Networks
System administrators often fail to realize the importance of networking hardware in their security schemes. Simple hardware such as hubs and routers rely on the broadcast or non-switched principle; that is, whenever a node transmits data across the network to a recipient node, the hub or router sends a broadcast of the data packets until the recipient node receives and processes the data. This method is the most vulnerable to address resolution protocol (arp) or media access control (MAC) address spoofing by both outside intruders and unauthorized users on local hosts.
1.3.2.1.2.??Centralized Servers
Another potential networking pitfall is the use of centralized computing. A common cost-cutting measure for many businesses is to consolidate all services to a single powerful machine. This can be convenient as it is easier to manage and costs considerably less than multiple-server configurations. However, a centralized server introduces a single point of failure on the network. If the central server is compromised, it may render the network completely useless or worse, prone to data manipulation or theft. In these situations, a central server becomes an open door which allows access to the entire network.
1.3.3.??Threats to Server Security
Server security is as important as network security because servers often hold a great deal of an organization's vital information. If a server is compromised, all of its contents may become available for the cracker to steal or manipulate at will. The following sections detail some of the main issues.
1.3.3.1.??Unused Services and Open Ports
A full installation of Fedora contains 1000+ application and library packages. However, most server administrators do not opt to install every single package in the distribution, preferring instead to install a base installation of packages, including several server applications.
A common occurrence among system administrators is to install the operating system without paying attention to what programs are actually being installed. This can be problematic because unneeded services may be installed, configured with the default settings, and possibly turned on. This can cause unwanted services, such as Telnet, DHCP, or DNS, to run on a server or workstation without the administrator realizing it, which in turn can cause unwanted traffic to the server, or even, a potential pathway into the system for crackers. Refer To Section??2.2, ???Server Security??? for information on closing ports and disabling unused services.
1.3.4.??Threats to Workstation and Home PC Security
Workstations and home PCs may not be as prone to attack as networks or servers, but since they often contain sensitive data, such as credit card information, they are targeted by system crackers. Workstations can also be co-opted without the user's knowledge and used by attackers as "slave" machines in coordinated attacks. For these reasons, knowing the vulnerabilities of a workstation can save users the headache of reinstalling the operating system, or worse, recovering from data theft.
1.3.4.1.??Bad Passwords
Bad passwords are one of the easiest ways for an attacker to gain access to a system. For more on how to avoid common pitfalls when creating a password, refer to Section??2.1.3, ???Password Security???.
1.3.??Attackers and Vulnerabilities
To plan and implement a good security strategy, first be aware of some of the issues which determined, motivated attackers exploit to compromise systems. However, before detailing these issues, the terminology used when identifying an attacker must be defined.
1.3.1.??A Quick History of Hackers
The modern meaning of the term hacker has origins dating back to the 1960s and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Tech Model Railroad Club, which designed train sets of large scale and intricate detail. Hacker was a name used for club members who discovered a clever trick or workaround for a problem.
The term hacker has since come to describe everything from computer buffs to gifted programmers. A common trait among most hackers is a willingness to explore in detail how computer systems and networks function with little or no outside motivation. Open source software developers often consider themselves and their colleagues to be hackers, and use the word as a term of respect.
Typically, hackers follow a form of the hacker ethic which dictates that the quest for information and expertise is essential, and that sharing this knowledge is the hackers duty to the community. During this quest for knowledge, some hackers enjoy the academic challenges of circumventing security controls on computer systems. For this reason, the press often uses the term hacker to describe those who illicitly access systems and networks with unscrupulous, malicious, or criminal intent. The more accurate term for this type of computer hacker is cracker ??? a term created by hackers in the mid-1980s to differentiate the two communities.
1.3.1.1.??Shades of Gray
Within the community of individuals who find and exploit vulnerabilities in systems and networks are several distinct groups. These groups are often described by the shade of hat that they "wear" when performing their security investigations and this shade is indicative of their intent.
The white hat hacker is one who tests networks and systems to examine their performance and determine how vulnerable they are to intrusion. Usually, white hat hackers crack their own systems or the systems of a client who has specifically employed them for the purposes of security auditing. Academic researchers and professional security consultants are two examples of white hat hackers.
A black hat hacker is synonymous with a cracker. In general, crackers are less focused on programming and the academic side of breaking into systems. They often rely on available cracking programs and exploit well known vulnerabilities in systems to uncover sensitive information for personal gain or to inflict damage on the target system or network.
The gray hat hacker, on the other hand, has the skills and intent of a white hat hacker in most situations but uses his knowledge for less than noble purposes on occasion. A gray hat hacker can be thought of as a white hat hacker who wears a black hat at times to accomplish his own agenda.
Gray hat hackers typically subscribe to another form of the hacker ethic, which says it is acceptable to break into systems as long as the hacker does not commit theft or breach confidentiality. Some would argue, however, that the act of breaking into a system is in itself unethical.
Regardless of the intent of the intruder, it is important to know the weaknesses a cracker may likely attempt to exploit. The remainder of the chapter focuses on these issues.
2.8.2.6.??Activating the IPTables Service
The firewall rules are only active if the
iptables service is running. To manually start the service, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # service iptables restart
To ensure that
iptables starts when the system is booted, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # chkconfig --level 345 iptables on
The
ipchains service is not included in Fedora. However, if ipchains is installed (for example, an upgrade was performed and the system had ipchains previously installed), the ipchains and iptables services should not be activated simultaneously. To make sure the ipchains service is disabled and configured not to start at boot time, use the following two commands:
[root at myServer ~] # service ipchains stop [root at myServer ~] # chkconfig --level 345 ipchains off
2.8.2.2.??Enabling and Disabling the Firewall
Select one of the following options for the firewall:
- Disabled ??? Disabling the firewall provides complete access to your system and does no security checking. This should only be selected if you are running on a trusted network (not the Internet) or need to configure a custom firewall using the iptables command line tool.
Warning
Firewall configurations and any customized firewall rules are stored in the/etc/sysconfig/iptablesfile. If you choose Disabled and click , these configurations and firewall rules will be lost. - Enabled ??? This option configures the system to reject incoming connections that are not in response to outbound requests, such as DNS replies or DHCP requests. If access to services running on this machine is needed, you can choose to allow specific services through the firewall.If you are connecting your system to the Internet, but do not plan to run a server, this is the safest choice.
2.8.2.4.??Other Ports
The Firewall Configuration Tool includes an Other ports section for specifying custom IP ports as being trusted by
iptables. For example, to allow IRC and Internet printing protocol (IPP) to pass through the firewall, add the following to the Other ports section:
194:tcp,631:tcp
2.8.2.5.??Saving the Settings
Click to save the changes and enable or disable the firewall. If Enable firewall was selected, the options selected are translated to
iptables commands and written to the /etc/sysconfig/iptables file. The iptables service is also started so that the firewall is activated immediately after saving the selected options. If Disable firewall was selected, the /etc/sysconfig/iptables file is removed and the iptables service is stopped immediately.
The selected options are also written to the
/etc/sysconfig/system-config-securitylevel file so that the settings can be restored the next time the application is started. Do not edit this file by hand.
Even though the firewall is activated immediately, the
iptables service is not configured to start automatically at boot time. Refer to Section??2.8.2.6, ???Activating the IPTables Service??? for more information.
2.8.2.3.??Trusted Services
Enabling options in the Trusted services list allows the specified service to pass through the firewall.
- WWW (HTTP)
- The HTTP protocol is used by Apache (and by other Web servers) to serve web pages. If you plan on making your Web server publicly available, select this check box. This option is not required for viewing pages locally or for developing web pages. This service requires that the
httpdpackage be installed.Enabling WWW (HTTP) will not open a port for HTTPS, the SSL version of HTTP. If this service is required, select the Secure WWW (HTTPS) check box. - FTP
- The FTP protocol is used to transfer files between machines on a network. If you plan on making your FTP server publicly available, select this check box. This service requires that the
vsftpdpackage be installed. - SSH
- Secure Shell (SSH) is a suite of tools for logging into and executing commands on a remote machine. To allow remote access to the machine via ssh, select this check box. This service requires that the
openssh-serverpackage be installed. - Telnet
- Telnet is a protocol for logging into remote machines. Telnet communications are unencrypted and provide no security from network snooping. Allowing incoming Telnet access is not recommended. To allow remote access to the machine via telnet, select this check box. This service requires that the
telnet-serverpackage be installed. - Mail (SMTP)
- SMTP is a protocol that allows remote hosts to connect directly to your machine to deliver mail. You do not need to enable this service if you collect your mail from your ISP's server using POP3 or IMAP, or if you use a tool such as
fetchmail. To allow delivery of mail to your machine, select this check box. Note that an improperly configured SMTP server can allow remote machines to use your server to send spam. - NFS4
- The Network File System (NFS) is a file sharing protocol commonly used on *NIX systems. Version 4 of this protocol is more secure than its predecessors. If you want to share files or directories on your system with other network users, select this check box.
- Samba
- Samba is an implementation of Microsoft's proprietary SMB networking protocol. If you need to share files, directories, or locally-connected printers with Microsoft Windows machines, select this check box.
2.9.3.2.??Command Options
Command options instruct
iptables to perform a specific action. Only one command option is allowed per iptables command. With the exception of the help command, all commands are written in upper-case characters.
The
iptables commands are as follows:
-A??? Appends the rule to the end of the specified chain. Unlike the-Ioption described below, it does not take an integer argument. It always appends the rule to the end of the specified chain.-C??? Checks a particular rule before adding it to the user-specified chain. This command can help you construct complexiptablesrules by prompting you for additional parameters and options.-D <integer> | <rule>??? Deletes a rule in a particular chain by number (such as5for the fifth rule in a chain), or by rule specification. The rule specification must exactly match an existing rule.-E??? Renames a user-defined chain. A user-defined chain is any chain other than the default, pre-existing chains. (Refer to the-Noption, below, for information on creating user-defined chains.) This is a cosmetic change and does not affect the structure of the table.Note
If you attempt to rename one of the default chains, the system reports aMatch not founderror. You cannot rename the default chains.-F??? Flushes the selected chain, which effectively deletes every rule in the chain. If no chain is specified, this command flushes every rule from every chain.-h??? Provides a list of command structures, as well as a quick summary of command parameters and options.-I [<integer>]??? Inserts the rule in the specified chain at a point specified by a user-defined integer argument. If no argument is specified, the rule is inserted at the top of the chain.Important
As noted above, the order of rules in a chain determines which rules apply to which packets. This is important to remember when adding rules using either the-Aor-Ioption.This is especially important when adding rules using the-Iwith an integer argument. If you specify an existing number when adding a rule to a chain,iptablesadds the new rule before (or above) the existing rule.-L??? Lists all of the rules in the chain specified after the command. To list all rules in all chains in the defaultfiltertable, do not specify a chain or table. Otherwise, the following syntax should be used to list the rules in a specific chain in a particular table:iptables -L<chain-name>-t<table-name>Additional options for the-Lcommand option, which provide rule numbers and allow more verbose rule descriptions, are described in Section??2.9.3.6, ???Listing Options???.-N??? Creates a new chain with a user-specified name. The chain name must be unique, otherwise an error message is displayed.-P??? Sets the default policy for the specified chain, so that when packets traverse an entire chain without matching a rule, they are sent to the specified target, such as ACCEPT or DROP.-R??? Replaces a rule in the specified chain. The rule's number must be specified after the chain's name. The first rule in a chain corresponds to rule number one.-X??? Deletes a user-specified chain. You cannot delete a built-in chain.-Z??? Sets the byte and packet counters in all chains for a table to zero.
2.9.3.4.??IPTables Match Options
Different network protocols provide specialized matching options which can be configured to match a particular packet using that protocol. However, the protocol must first be specified in the
iptables command. For example, -p <protocol-name> enables options for the specified protocol. Note that you can also use the protocol ID, instead of the protocol name. Refer to the following examples, each of which have the same effect:
iptables -A INPUT -p icmp --icmp-type any -j ACCEPT
iptables -A INPUT -p 5813 --icmp-type any -j ACCEPT
Service definitions are provided in the
/etc/services file. For readability, it is recommended that you use the service names rather than the port numbers.
Warning
Secure the
/etc/services file to prevent unauthorized editing. If this file is editable, crackers can use it to enable ports on your machine you have otherwise closed. To secure this file, type the following commands as root:
[root at myServer ~]# chown root.root /etc/services [root at myServer ~]# chmod 0644 /etc/services [root at myServer ~]# chattr +i /etc/services
This prevents the file from being renamed, deleted or having links made to it.
2.9.3.4.1.??TCP Protocol
These match options are available for the TCP protocol (
-p tcp):
--dport??? Sets the destination port for the packet.To configure this option, use a network service name (such as www or smtp); a port number; or a range of port numbers.To specify a range of port numbers, separate the two numbers with a colon (:). For example:-p tcp --dport 3000:3200. The largest acceptable valid range is0:65535.Use an exclamation point character (!) after the--dportoption to match all packets that do not use that network service or port.To browse the names and aliases of network services and the port numbers they use, view the/etc/servicesfile.The--destination-portmatch option is synonymous with--dport.--sport??? Sets the source port of the packet using the same options as--dport. The--source-portmatch option is synonymous with--sport.--syn??? Applies to all TCP packets designed to initiate communication, commonly called SYN packets. Any packets that carry a data payload are not touched.Use an exclamation point character (!) after the--synoption to match all non-SYN packets.--tcp-flags <tested flag list> <set flag list>??? Allows TCP packets that have specific bits (flags) set, to match a rule.The--tcp-flagsmatch option accepts two parameters. The first parameter is the mask; a comma-separated list of flags to be examined in the packet. The second parameter is a comma-separated list of flags that must be set for the rule to match.The possible flags are:ACKFINPSHRSTSYNURGALLNONE
For example, aniptablesrule that contains the following specification only matches TCP packets that have the SYN flag set and the ACK and FIN flags not set:--tcp-flags ACK,FIN,SYN SYNUse the exclamation point character (!) after the--tcp-flagsto reverse the effect of the match option.--tcp-option??? Attempts to match with TCP-specific options that can be set within a particular packet. This match option can also be reversed with the exclamation point character (!).
2.9.3.3.??IPTables Parameter Options
Certain
iptables commands, including those used to add, append, delete, insert, or replace rules within a particular chain, require various parameters to construct a packet filtering rule.
-c??? Resets the counters for a particular rule. This parameter accepts thePKTSandBYTESoptions to specify which counter to reset.-d??? Sets the destination hostname, IP address, or network of a packet that matches the rule. When matching a network, the following IP address/netmask formats are supported:N.N.N.N/M.M.M.MN.N.N.Nis the IP address range andM.M.M.Mis the netmask.N.N.N.N/MN.N.N.Nis the IP address range andMis the bitmask.
-f??? Applies this rule only to fragmented packets.You can use the exclamation point character (!) option after this parameter to specify that only unfragmented packets are matched.Note
Distinguishing between fragmented and unfragmented packets is desirable, despite fragmented packets being a standard part of the IP protocol.Originally designed to allow IP packets to travel over networks with differing frame sizes, these days fragmentation is more commonly used to generate DoS attacks using mal-formed packets. It's also worth noting that IPv6 disallows fragmentation entirely.-i??? Sets the incoming network interface, such aseth0orppp0. Withiptables, this optional parameter may only be used with the INPUT and FORWARD chains when used with thefiltertable and the PREROUTING chain with thenatandmangletables.This parameter also supports the following special options:- Exclamation point character (
!) ??? Reverses the directive, meaning any specified interfaces are excluded from this rule. - Plus character (
+) ??? A wildcard character used to match all interfaces that match the specified string. For example, the parameter-i eth+would apply this rule to any Ethernet interfaces but exclude any other interfaces, such asppp0.
If the-iparameter is used but no interface is specified, then every interface is affected by the rule.-j??? Jumps to the specified target when a packet matches a particular rule.The standard targets areACCEPT,DROP,QUEUE, andRETURN.Extended options are also available through modules loaded by default with the FedoraiptablesRPM package. Valid targets in these modules includeLOG,MARK, andREJECT, among others. Refer to theiptablesman page for more information about these and other targets.This option can also be used to direct a packet matching a particular rule to a user-defined chain outside of the current chain so that other rules can be applied to the packet.If no target is specified, the packet moves past the rule with no action taken. The counter for this rule, however, increases by one.-o??? Sets the outgoing network interface for a rule. This option is only valid for the OUTPUT and FORWARD chains in thefiltertable, and the POSTROUTING chain in thenatandmangletables. This parameter accepts the same options as the incoming network interface parameter (-i).-p <protocol>??? Sets the IP protocol affected by the rule. This can be eithericmp,tcp,udp, orall, or it can be a numeric value, representing one of these or a different protocol. You can also use any protocols listed in the/etc/protocolsfile.The "all" protocol means the rule applies to every supported protocol. If no protocol is listed with this rule, it defaults to "all".-s??? Sets the source for a particular packet using the same syntax as the destination (-d) parameter.
2.9.3.6.??Listing Options
The default list command,
iptables -L [<chain-name>], provides a very basic overview of the default filter table's current chains. Additional options provide more information:
-v??? Displays verbose output, such as the number of packets and bytes each chain has processed, the number of packets and bytes each rule has matched, and which interfaces apply to a particular rule.-x??? Expands numbers into their exact values. On a busy system, the number of packets and bytes processed by a particular chain or rule may be abbreviated toKilobytes,Megabytes(Megabytes) orGigabytes. This option forces the full number to be displayed.-n??? Displays IP addresses and port numbers in numeric format, rather than the default hostname and network service format.--line-numbers??? Lists rules in each chain next to their numeric order in the chain. This option is useful when attempting to delete the specific rule in a chain or to locate where to insert a rule within a chain.-t <table-name>??? Specifies a table name. If omitted, defaults to the filter table.
2.9.3.5.??Target Options
When a packet has matched a particular rule, the rule can direct the packet to a number of different targets which determine the appropriate action. Each chain has a default target, which is used if none of the rules on that chain match a packet or if none of the rules which match the packet specify a target.
The following are the standard targets:
<user-defined-chain>ACCEPT??? Allows the packet through to its destination or to another chain.DROP??? Drops the packet without responding to the requester. The system that sent the packet is not notified of the failure.QUEUE??? The packet is queued for handling by a user-space application.RETURN??? Stops checking the packet against rules in the current chain. If the packet with aRETURNtarget matches a rule in a chain called from another chain, the packet is returned to the first chain to resume rule checking where it left off. If theRETURNrule is used on a built-in chain and the packet cannot move up to its previous chain, the default target for the current chain is used.
In addition, extensions are available which allow other targets to be specified. These extensions are called target modules or match option modules and most only apply to specific tables and situations. Refer to Section??2.9.3.4.4, ???Additional Match Option Modules??? for more information about match option modules.
Many extended target modules exist, most of which only apply to specific tables or situations. Some of the most popular target modules included by default in Fedora are:
LOG??? Logs all packets that match this rule. Because the packets are logged by the kernel, the/etc/syslog.conffile determines where these log entries are written. By default, they are placed in the/var/log/messagesfile.Additional options can be used after theLOGtarget to specify the way in which logging occurs:--log-level??? Sets the priority level of a logging event. Refer to thesyslog.confman page for a list of priority levels.--log-ip-options??? Logs any options set in the header of an IP packet.--log-prefix??? Places a string of up to 29 characters before the log line when it is written. This is useful for writing syslog filters for use in conjunction with packet logging.Note
Due to an issue with this option, you should add a trailing space to thelog-prefixvalue.--log-tcp-options??? Logs any options set in the header of a TCP packet.--log-tcp-sequence??? Writes the TCP sequence number for the packet in the log.
REJECT??? Sends an error packet back to the remote system and drops the packet.TheREJECTtarget accepts--reject-with(where<type><type>is the rejection type) allowing more detailed information to be returned with the error packet. The messageport-unreachableis the default error type given if no other option is used. Refer to theiptablesman page for a full list of<type>
Other target extensions, including several that are useful for IP masquerading using the
nat table, or with packet alteration using the mangle table, can be found in the iptables man page.
1.4.??Common Exploits and Attacks
Table??1.1, ???Common Exploits??? details some of the most common exploits and entry points used by intruders to access organizational network resources. Key to these common exploits are the explanations of how they are performed and how administrators can properly safeguard their network against such attacks.
| Exploit | Description | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Null or Default Passwords | Leaving administrative passwords blank or using a default password set by the product vendor. This is most common in hardware such as routers and firewalls, though some services that run on Linux can contain default administrator passwords (though Fedora 11 does not ship with them). |
| |||
| Default Shared Keys | Secure services sometimes package default security keys for development or evaluation testing purposes. If these keys are left unchanged and are placed in a production environment on the Internet, all users with the same default keys have access to that shared-key resource, and any sensitive information that it contains. |
| |||
| IP Spoofing | A remote machine acts as a node on your local network, finds vulnerabilities with your servers, and installs a backdoor program or trojan horse to gain control over your network resources. |
| |||
| Eavesdropping | Collecting data that passes between two active nodes on a network by eavesdropping on the connection between the two nodes. |
| |||
| Service Vulnerabilities | An attacker finds a flaw or loophole in a service run over the Internet; through this vulnerability, the attacker compromises the entire system and any data that it may hold, and could possibly compromise other systems on the network. |
| |||
| Application Vulnerabilities | Attackers find faults in desktop and workstation applications (such as e-mail clients) and execute arbitrary code, implant trojan horses for future compromise, or crash systems. Further exploitation can occur if the compromised workstation has administrative privileges on the rest of the network. |
| |||
| Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks | Attacker or group of attackers coordinate against an organization's network or server resources by sending unauthorized packets to the target host (either server, router, or workstation). This forces the resource to become unavailable to legitimate users. |
|
Table??1.1.??Common Exploits
3.8.2.??Step-by-Step Installation Instructions
- Open a Terminal:
Click ''Applications'' -> ''System Tools'' -> ''Terminal'' - Install 7-Zip with sudo access:
sudo yum install p7zip - Close the Terminal:
exit
3.8.4.??Things of note
7-Zip is not shipped by default with Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X. If you need to use your 7-Zip files on those platforms you will need to install the appropriate version of 7-Zip on those computers. See the 7-Zip download page.
GNOME's File Roller application will recognize your .7z files and attempt to open them, but it will fail with the error "''An error occurred while loading the archive.''" when it attempts to do so. This is because File Roller does not currently support the extraction of encrypted 7-Zip files. A bug report ([http://bugzilla.gnome.org/show_bug.cgi?id=490732 Gnome Bug 490732]) has been submitted.
3.8.3.??Step-by-Step Usage Instructions
By following these instructions you are going to compress and encrypt your "Documents" directory. Your original "Documents" directory will remain unaltered. This technique can be applied to any directory or file you have access to on the filesystem.
- Open a Terminal:
Click ''Applications'' -> ''System Tools'' -> ''Terminal'' - Compress and Encrypt: (enter a password when prompted)
7za a -mhe=on -ms=on -p Documents.7z Documents/
The "Documents" directory is now compressed and encrypted. The following instructions will move the encrypted archive somewhere new and then extract it.
- Create a new directory:
mkdir newplace - Move the encrypted file:
mv Documents.7z newplace - Go to the new directory:
cd newplace - Extract the file: (enter the password when prompted)
7za x Documents.7z
The archive is now extracted into the new location. The following instructions will clean up all the prior steps and restore your computer to its previous state.
- Go up a directory:
cd .. - Delete the test archive and test extraction:
rm -r newplace - Close the Terminal:
exit
3.8.??7-Zip Encrypted Archives
7-Zip is a cross-platform, next generation, file compression tool that can also use strong encryption (AES-256) to protect the contents of the archive. This is extremely useful when you need to move data between multiple computers that use varying operating systems (i.e. Linux at home, Windows at work) and you want a portable encryption solution.
3.8.1.??7-Zip Installation in Fedora
7-Zip is not a base package in Fedora, but it is available in the software repository. Once installed, the package will update alongside the rest of the software on the computer with no special attention necessary.
3.2.??Full Disk Encryption
Full disk or partition encryption is one of the best ways of protecting your data. Not only is each file protected but also the temporary storage that may contain parts of these files is also protected. Full disk encryption will protect all of your files so you don't have to worry about selecting what you want to protect and possibly missing a file.
Fedora 9, and later, natively supports LUKS Encryption. LUKS will bulk encrypt your hard drive partitions so that while your computer is off your data is protected. This will also protect your computer from attackers attempting to use single-user-mode to login to your computer or otherwise gain access.
Full disk encryption solutions like LUKS only protect the data when your computer is off. Once the computer is on and LUKS has decrypted the disk, the files on that disk are available to anyone who would normally have access to them. To protect your files when the computer is on, use full disk encryption in combination with another solution such as file based encryption. Also remember to lock your computer whenever you are away from it. A passphrase protected screen saver set to activate after a few minutes of inactivity is a good way to keep intruders out.
3.9.4.??About Public Key Encryption
- Prev3.9.3.??Creating GPG Keys Using the Command Line
- Up
- Home
- NextChapter??4.??General Principles of Information Secu...
3.9.3.??Creating GPG Keys Using the Command Line
Use the following shell command:
gpg --gen-key
This command generates a key pair that consists of a public and a private key. Other people use your public key to authenticate and/or decrypt your communications. Distribute your public key as widely as possible, especially to people who you know will want to receive authentic communications from you, such as a mailing list. The Fedora Documentation Project, for example, asks participants to include a GPG public key in their self-introduction.
A series of prompts directs you through the process. Press the
Enter key to assign a default value if desired. The first prompt asks you to select what kind of key you prefer:
Please select what kind of key you want: (1) DSA and ElGamal (default) (2) DSA (sign only) (4) RSA (sign only) Your selection? In almost all cases, the default is the correct choice. A DSA/ElGamal key allows you not only to sign communications, but also to encrypt files.
Next, choose the key size: minimum keysize is 768 bits default keysize is 1024 bits highest suggested keysize is 2048 bits What keysize do you want? (1024) Again, the default is sufficient for almost all users, and represents an ''extremely'' strong level of security.
Next, choose when the key will expire. It is a good idea to choose an expiration date instead of using the default, which is ''none.'' If, for example, the email address on the key becomes invalid, an expiration date will remind others to stop using that public key.
Please specify how long the key should be valid. 0 = key does not expire d = key expires in n days w = key expires in n weeks m = key expires in n months y = key expires in n years Key is valid for? (0)
Entering a value of
1y, for example, makes the key valid for one year. (You may change this expiration date after the key is generated, if you change your mind.)
Before the
gpgcode> program asks for signature information, the following prompt appears: Is this correct (y/n)? Enter ycode> to finish the process.
Next, enter your name and email address. Remember this process is about authenticating you as a real individual. For this reason, include your real name. Do not use aliases or handles, since these disguise or obfuscate your identity.
Enter your real email address for your GPG key. If you choose a bogus email address, it will be more difficult for others to find your public key. This makes authenticating your communications difficult. If you are using this GPG key for [[DocsProject/SelfIntroduction| self-introduction]] on a mailing list, for example, enter the email address you use on that list.
Use the comment field to include aliases or other information. (Some people use different keys for different purposes and identify each key with a comment, such as "Office" or "Open Source Projects.")
At the confirmation prompt, enter the letter O to continue if all entries are correct, or use the other options to fix any problems. Finally, enter a passphrase for your secret key. The
gpg program asks you to enter your passphrase twice to ensure you made no typing errors.
Finally,
gpg generates random data to make your key as unique as possible. Move your mouse, type random keys, or perform other tasks on the system during this step to speed up the process. Once this step is finished, your keys are complete and ready to use:
pub 1024D/1B2AFA1C 2005-03-31 John Q. Doe (Fedora Docs Project) <jqdoe at example.com> Key fingerprint = 117C FE83 22EA B843 3E86 6486 4320 545E 1B2A FA1C sub 1024g/CEA4B22E 2005-03-31 [expires: 2006-03-31]
The key fingerprint is a shorthand "signature" for your key. It allows you to confirm to others that they have received your actual public key without any tampering. You do not need to write this fingerprint down. To display the fingerprint at any time, use this command, substituting your email address:
gpg --fingerprint jqdoe at example.com
Your "GPG key ID" consists of 8 hex digits identifying the public key. In the example above, the GPG key ID is 1B2AFA1C. In most cases, if you are asked for the key ID, you should prepend "0x" to the key ID, as in "0x1B2AFA1C".
Warning
If you forget your passphrase, the key cannot be used and any data encrypted using that key will be lost.
3.9.2.??Creating GPG Keys in KDE
Start the KGpg program from the main menu by selecting Applications > Utilities > Encryption Tool. If you have never used KGpg before, the program walks you through the process of creating your own GPG keypair. A dialog box appears prompting you to create a new key pair. Enter your name, email address, and an optional comment. You can also choose an expiration time for your key, as well as the key strength (number of bits) and algorithms. The next dialog box prompts you for your passphrase. At this point, your key appears in the main
KGpg window.
Warning
If you forget your passphrase, the key cannot be used and any data encrypted using that key will be lost.
To find your GPG key ID, look in the ''Key ID'' column next to the newly created key. In most cases, if you are asked for the key ID, you should prepend "0x" to the key ID, as in "0x6789ABCD". You should make a backup of your private key and store it somewhere secure.
3.9.??Using GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG)
GPG is used to identify yourself and authenticate your communications, including those with people you don't know. GPG allows anyone reading a GPG-signed email to verify its authenticity. In other words, GPG allows someone to be reasonably certain that communications signed by you actually are from you. GPG is useful because it helps prevent third parties from altering code or intercepting conversations and altering the message.
3.9.1.??Creating GPG Keys in GNOME
Install the Seahorse utility, which makes GPG key management easier. From the main menu, select
System > Administration > Add/Remove Software and wait for PackageKit to start. Enter Seahorse into the text box and select the Find. Select the checkbox next to the ''seahorse'' package and select ''Apply'' to add the software. You can also install Seahorse at the command line with the command su -c "yum install seahorse".
To create a key, from the ''Applications > Accessories'' menu select ''Passwords and Encryption Keys'', which starts the application
Seahorse. From the ''Key'' menu select ''Create New Key...'' then ''PGP Key'' then click ''Continue''. Type your full name, email address, and an optional comment describing who are you (e.g.: John C. Smith, jsmith at example.com, The Man). Click ''Create''. A dialog is displayed asking for a passphrase for the key. Choose a strong passphrase but also easy to remember. Click ''OK'' and the key is created.
Warning
If you forget your passphrase, the key cannot be used and any data encrypted using that key will be lost.
To find your GPG key ID, look in the ''Key ID'' column next to the newly created key. In most cases, if you are asked for the key ID, you should prepend "0x" to the key ID, as in "0x6789ABCD". You should make a backup of your private key and store it somewhere secure.
1.2.3.5.??Anticipating Your Future Needs
Depending upon your target and resources, there are many tools available. There are tools for wireless networks, Novell networks, Windows systems, Linux systems, and more. Another essential part of performing assessments may include reviewing physical security, personnel screening, or voice/PBX network assessment. New concepts, such as war walking, which involves scanning the perimeter of your enterprise's physical structures for wireless network vulnerabilities, are some emerging concepts that you can investigate and, if needed, incorporate into your assessments. Imagination and exposure are the only limits of planning and conducting vulnerability assessments.
1.2.3.2.??Nessus
Nessus is a full-service security scanner. The plug-in architecture of Nessus allows users to customize it for their systems and networks. As with any scanner, Nessus is only as good as the signature database it relies upon. Fortunately, Nessus is frequently updated and features full reporting, host scanning, and real-time vulnerability searches. Remember that there could be false positives and false negatives, even in a tool as powerful and as frequently updated as Nessus.
Note
The Nessus client and server software is included Fedora in repositories but requires a subscription to use. It has been included in this document as a reference to users who may be interested in using this popular application.
For more information about Nessus, refer to the official website at the following URL:
1.2.3.3.??Nikto
Nikto is an excellent common gateway interface (CGI) script scanner. Nikto not only checks for CGI vulnerabilities but does so in an evasive manner, so as to elude intrusion detection systems. It comes with thorough documentation which should be carefully reviewed prior to running the program. If you have Web servers serving up CGI scripts, Nikto can be an excellent resource for checking the security of these servers.
More information about Nikto can be found at the following URL:
1.2.3.4.??VLAD the Scanner
VLAD is a vulnerabilities scanner developed by the RAZOR team at Bindview, Inc., which checks for the SANS Top Ten list of common security issues (SNMP issues, file sharing issues, etc.). While not as full-featured as Nessus, VLAD is worth investigating.
Note
VLAD is not included with Fedora and is not supported. It has been included in this document as a reference to users who may be interested in using this popular application.
More information about VLAD can be found on the RAZOR team website at the following URL:
2.8.5.3.??DMZs and IPTables
You can create
iptables rules to route traffic to certain machines, such as a dedicated HTTP or FTP server, in a demilitarized zone (DMZ). A DMZ is a special local subnetwork dedicated to providing services on a public carrier, such as the Internet.
For example, to set a rule for routing incoming HTTP requests to a dedicated HTTP server at 10.0.4.2 (outside of the 192.168.1.0/24 range of the LAN), NAT uses the
PREROUTING table to forward the packets to the appropriate destination:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i eth0 -p tcp --dport 80 -j DNAT --to-destination 10.0.4.2:80
With this command, all HTTP connections to port 80 from outside of the LAN are routed to the HTTP server on a network separate from the rest of the internal network. This form of network segmentation can prove safer than allowing HTTP connections to a machine on the network.
If the HTTP server is configured to accept secure connections, then port 443 must be forwarded as well.
2.8.5.2.??Prerouting
If you have a server on your internal network that you want make available externally, you can use the
-j DNAT target of the PREROUTING chain in NAT to specify a destination IP address and port where incoming packets requesting a connection to your internal service can be forwarded.
For example, if you want to forward incoming HTTP requests to your dedicated Apache HTTP Server at 172.31.0.23, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i eth0 -p tcp --dport 80 -j DNAT --to 172.31.0.23:80
This rule specifies that the nat table use the built-in PREROUTING chain to forward incoming HTTP requests exclusively to the listed destination IP address of 172.31.0.23.
Note
If you have a default policy of DROP in your FORWARD chain, you must append a rule to forward all incoming HTTP requests so that destination NAT routing is possible. To do this, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A FORWARD -i eth0 -p tcp --dport 80 -d 172.31.0.23 -j ACCEPT
This rule forwards all incoming HTTP requests from the firewall to the intended destination; the Apache HTTP Server behind the firewall.
2.8.9.??Additional Resources
There are several aspects to firewalls and the Linux Netfilter subsystem that could not be covered in this chapter. For more information, refer to the following resources.
2.8.9.1.??Installed Firewall Documentation
- Refer to Section??2.9, ???IPTables??? for more detailed information on the
iptablescommand, including definitions for many command options. - The
iptablesman page contains a brief summary of the various options.
2.8.2.??Basic Firewall Configuration
Just as a firewall in a building attempts to prevent a fire from spreading, a computer firewall attempts to prevent malicious software from spreading to your computer. It also helps to prevent unauthorized users from accessing your computer.
In a default Fedora installation, a firewall exists between your computer or network and any untrusted networks, for example the Internet. It determines which services on your computer remote users can access. A properly configured firewall can greatly increase the security of your system. It is recommended that you configure a firewall for any Fedora system with an Internet connection.
2.8.2.1.??Firewall Configuration Tool
During the Firewall Configuration screen of the Fedora installation, you were given the option to enable a basic firewall as well as to allow specific devices, incoming services, and ports.
After installation, you can change this preference by using the Firewall Configuration Tool.
To start this application, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # system-config-firewall
Security Level Configuration
Figure??2.15.??Firewall Configuration Tool
Note
The Firewall Configuration Tool only configures a basic firewall. If the system needs more complex rules, refer to Section??2.9, ???IPTables??? for details on configuring specific
iptables rules.
2.8.4.??Common IPTables Filtering
Preventing remote attackers from accessing a LAN is one of the most important aspects of network security. The integrity of a LAN should be protected from malicious remote users through the use of stringent firewall rules.
However, with a default policy set to block all incoming, outgoing, and forwarded packets, it is impossible for the firewall/gateway and internal LAN users to communicate with each other or with external resources.
To allow users to perform network-related functions and to use networking applications, administrators must open certain ports for communication.
For example, to allow access to port 80 on the firewall, append the following rule:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -m tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT
This allows users to browse websites that communicate using the standard port 80. To allow access to secure websites (for example, https://www.example.com/), you also need to provide access to port 443, as follows:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -m tcp --dport 443 -j ACCEPT
Important
When creating an
iptables ruleset, order is important.
If a rule specifies that any packets from the 192.168.100.0/24 subnet be dropped, and this is followed by a rule that allows packets from 192.168.100.13 (which is within the dropped subnet), then the second rule is ignored.
The rule to allow packets from 192.168.100.13 must precede the rule that drops the remainder of the subnet.
To insert a rule in a specific location in an existing chain, use the
-I option. For example:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -I INPUT 1 -i lo -p all -j ACCEPT
This rule is inserted as the first rule in the INPUT chain to allow local loopback device traffic.
There may be times when you require remote access to the LAN. Secure services, for example SSH, can be used for encrypted remote connection to LAN services.
Administrators with PPP-based resources (such as modem banks or bulk ISP accounts), dial-up access can be used to securely circumvent firewall barriers. Because they are direct connections, modem connections are typically behind a firewall/gateway.
For remote users with broadband connections, however, special cases can be made. You can configure
iptables to accept connections from remote SSH clients. For example, the following rules allow remote SSH access:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT [root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A OUTPUT -p tcp --sport 22 -j ACCEPT
These rules allow incoming and outbound access for an individual system, such as a single PC directly connected to the Internet or a firewall/gateway. However, they do not allow nodes behind the firewall/gateway to access these services. To allow LAN access to these services, you can use Network Address Translation (NAT) with
iptables filtering rules.
2.8.5.??FORWARD and NAT Rules
Most ISPs provide only a limited number of publicly routable IP addresses to the organizations they serve.
Administrators must, therefore, find alternative ways to share access to Internet services without giving public IP addresses to every node on the LAN. Using private IP addresses is the most common way of allowing all nodes on a LAN to properly access internal and external network services.
Edge routers (such as firewalls) can receive incoming transmissions from the Internet and route the packets to the intended LAN node. At the same time, firewalls/gateways can also route outgoing requests from a LAN node to the remote Internet service.
This forwarding of network traffic can become dangerous at times, especially with the availability of modern cracking tools that can spoof internal IP addresses and make the remote attacker's machine act as a node on your LAN.
To prevent this,
iptables provides routing and forwarding policies that can be implemented to prevent abnormal usage of network resources.
The
FORWARD chain allows an administrator to control where packets can be routed within a LAN. For example, to allow forwarding for the entire LAN (assuming the firewall/gateway is assigned an internal IP address on eth1), use the following rules:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A FORWARD -i eth1 -j ACCEPT [root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A FORWARD -o eth1 -j ACCEPT
This rule gives systems behind the firewall/gateway access to the internal network. The gateway routes packets from one LAN node to its intended destination node, passing all packets through its
eth1 device.
Note
By default, the IPv4 policy in Fedora kernels disables support for IP forwarding. This prevents machines that run Fedora from functioning as dedicated edge routers. To enable IP forwarding, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~ ] # sysctl -w net.ipv4.ip_forward=1
This configuration change is only valid for the current session; it does not persist beyond a reboot or network service restart. To permanently set IP forwarding, edit the
/etc/sysctl.conf file as follows:
Locate the following line:
net.ipv4.ip_forward = 0
Edit it to read as follows:
net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1
Use the following command to enable the change to the
sysctl.conf file:
[root at myServer ~ ] # sysctl -p /etc/sysctl.conf
2.8.5.1.??Postrouting and IP Masquerading
Accepting forwarded packets via the firewall's internal IP device allows LAN nodes to communicate with each other; however they still cannot communicate externally to the Internet.
To allow LAN nodes with private IP addresses to communicate with external public networks, configure the firewall for IP masquerading, which masks requests from LAN nodes with the IP address of the firewall's external device (in this case, eth0):
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE
This rule uses the NAT packet matching table (
-t nat) and specifies the built-in POSTROUTING chain for NAT (-A POSTROUTING) on the firewall's external networking device (-o eth0).
POSTROUTING allows packets to be altered as they are leaving the firewall's external device.
The
-j MASQUERADE target is specified to mask the private IP address of a node with the external IP address of the firewall/gateway.
2.8.7.??IPTables and Connection Tracking
You can inspect and restrict connections to services based on their connection state. A module within
iptables uses a method called connection tracking to store information about incoming connections. You can allow or deny access based on the following connection states:
NEW??? A packet requesting a new connection, such as an HTTP request.ESTABLISHED??? A packet that is part of an existing connection.RELATED??? A packet that is requesting a new connection but is part of an existing connection. For example, FTP uses port 21 to establish a connection, but data is transferred on a different port (typically port 20).INVALID??? A packet that is not part of any connections in the connection tracking table.
You can use the stateful functionality of
iptables connection tracking with any network protocol, even if the protocol itself is stateless (such as UDP). The following example shows a rule that uses connection tracking to forward only the packets that are associated with an established connection:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A FORWARD -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT
2.8.8.??IPv6
The introduction of the next-generation Internet Protocol, called IPv6, expands beyond the 32-bit address limit of IPv4 (or IP). IPv6 supports 128-bit addresses, and carrier networks that are IPv6 aware are therefore able to address a larger number of routable addresses than IPv4.
Fedora supports IPv6 firewall rules using the Netfilter 6 subsystem and the
ip6tables command. In Fedora 11, both IPv4 and IPv6 services are enabled by default.
The
ip6tables command syntax is identical to iptables in every aspect except that it supports 128-bit addresses. For example, use the following command to enable SSH connections on an IPv6-aware network server:
[root at myServer ~ ] # ip6tables -A INPUT -i eth0 -p tcp -s 3ffe:ffff:100::1/128 --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
For more information about IPv6 networking, refer to the IPv6 Information Page at http://www.ipv6.org/.
2.8.6.??Malicious Software and Spoofed IP Addresses
More elaborate rules can be created that control access to specific subnets, or even specific nodes, within a LAN. You can also restrict certain dubious applications or programs such as trojans, worms, and other client/server viruses from contacting their server.
For example, some trojans scan networks for services on ports from 31337 to 31340 (called the elite ports in cracking terminology).
Since there are no legitimate services that communicate via these non-standard ports, blocking them can effectively diminish the chances that potentially infected nodes on your network independently communicate with their remote master servers.
The following rules drop all TCP traffic that attempts to use port 31337:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A OUTPUT -o eth0 -p tcp --dport 31337 --sport 31337 -j DROP [root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A FORWARD -o eth0 -p tcp --dport 31337 --sport 31337 -j DROP
You can also block outside connections that attempt to spoof private IP address ranges to infiltrate your LAN.
For example, if your LAN uses the 192.168.1.0/24 range, you can design a rule that instructs the Internet-facing network device (for example, eth0) to drop any packets to that device with an address in your LAN IP range.
Because it is recommended to reject forwarded packets as a default policy, any other spoofed IP address to the external-facing device (eth0) is rejected automatically.
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A FORWARD -s 192.168.1.0/24 -i eth0 -j DROP
Note
There is a distinction between the
DROP and REJECT targets when dealing with appended rules.
The
REJECT target denies access and returns a connection refused error to users who attempt to connect to the service. The DROP target, as the name implies, drops the packet without any warning.
Administrators can use their own discretion when using these targets. However, to avoid user confusion and attempts to continue connecting, the
REJECT target is recommended.
2.8.3.??Using IPTables
The first step in using
iptables is to start the iptables service. Use the following command to start the iptables service:
[root at myServer ~] # service iptables start
Note
The
ip6tables service can be turned off if you intend to use the iptables service only. If you deactivate the ip6tables service, remember to deactivate the IPv6 network also. Never leave a network device active without the matching firewall.
To force
iptables to start by default when the system is booted, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # chkconfig --level 345 iptables on
This forces
iptables to start whenever the system is booted into runlevel 3, 4, or 5.
2.8.3.1.??IPTables Command Syntax
The following sample
iptables command illustrates the basic command syntax:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -A<chain>-j<target>
The
-A option specifies that the rule be appended to <chain>. Each chain is comprised of one or more rules, and is therefore also known as a ruleset.
The three built-in chains are INPUT, OUTPUT, and FORWARD. These chains are permanent and cannot be deleted. The chain specifies the point at which a packet is manipulated.
The
-j <target> option specifies the target of the rule; i.e., what to do if the packet matches the rule. Examples of built-in targets are ACCEPT, DROP, and REJECT.
Refer to the
iptables man page for more information on the available chains, options, and targets.
2.8.??Firewalls
Information security is commonly thought of as a process and not a product. However, standard security implementations usually employ some form of dedicated mechanism to control access privileges and restrict network resources to users who are authorized, identifiable, and traceable. Fedora includes several tools to assist administrators and security engineers with network-level access control issues.
Firewalls are one of the core components of a network security implementation. Several vendors market firewall solutions catering to all levels of the marketplace: from home users protecting one PC to data center solutions safeguarding vital enterprise information. Firewalls can be stand-alone hardware solutions, such as firewall appliances by Cisco, Nokia, and Sonicwall. Vendors such as Checkpoint, McAfee, and Symantec have also developed proprietary software firewall solutions for home and business markets.
Apart from the differences between hardware and software firewalls, there are also differences in the way firewalls function that separate one solution from another. Table??2.2, ???Firewall Types??? details three common types of firewalls and how they function:
| Method | Description | Advantages | Disadvantages | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NAT | Network Address Translation (NAT) places private IP subnetworks behind one or a small pool of public IP addresses, masquerading all requests to one source rather than several. The Linux kernel has built-in NAT functionality through the Netfilter kernel subsystem. |
|
| ||||||
| Packet Filter | A packet filtering firewall reads each data packet that passes through a LAN. It can read and process packets by header information and filters the packet based on sets of programmable rules implemented by the firewall administrator. The Linux kernel has built-in packet filtering functionality through the Netfilter kernel subsystem. |
|
| ||||||
| Proxy | Proxy firewalls filter all requests of a certain protocol or type from LAN clients to a proxy machine, which then makes those requests to the Internet on behalf of the local client. A proxy machine acts as a buffer between malicious remote users and the internal network client machines. |
|
|
Table??2.2.??Firewall Types
2.8.1.??Netfilter and IPTables
The Linux kernel features a powerful networking subsystem called Netfilter. The Netfilter subsystem provides stateful or stateless packet filtering as well as NAT and IP masquerading services. Netfilter also has the ability to mangle IP header information for advanced routing and connection state management. Netfilter is controlled using the
iptables tool.
2.8.1.1.??IPTables Overview
The power and flexibility of Netfilter is implemented using the
iptables administration tool, a command line tool similar in syntax to its predecessor, ipchains.
A similar syntax does not mean similar implementation, however.
ipchains requires intricate rule sets for: filtering source paths; filtering destination paths; and filtering both source and destination connection ports.
By contrast,
iptables uses the Netfilter subsystem to enhance network connection, inspection, and processing. iptables features advanced logging, pre- and post-routing actions, network address translation, and port forwarding, all in one command line interface.
This section provides an overview of
iptables. For more detailed information, refer to Section??2.9, ???IPTables???.
2.9.7.??Additional Resources
Refer to the following sources for additional information on packet filtering with
iptables.
- Section??2.8, ???Firewalls??? ??? Contains a chapter about the role of firewalls within an overall security strategy as well as strategies for constructing firewall rules.
2.9.7.1.??Installed IP Tables Documentation
man iptables??? Contains a description ofiptablesas well as a comprehensive list of targets, options, and match extensions.
2.9.3.??Command Options for IPTables
Rules for filtering packets are created using the
iptables command. The following aspects of the packet are most often used as criteria:
- Packet Type ??? Specifies the type of packets the command filters.
- Packet Source/Destination ??? Specifies which packets the command filters based on the source or destination of the packet.
- Target ??? Specifies what action is taken on packets matching the above criteria.
Refer to Section??2.9.3.4, ???IPTables Match Options??? and Section??2.9.3.5, ???Target Options??? for more information about specific options that address these aspects of a packet.
The options used with specific
iptables rules must be grouped logically, based on the purpose and conditions of the overall rule, for the rule to be valid. The remainder of this section explains commonly-used options for the iptables command.
2.9.3.1.??Structure of IPTables Command Options
Many
iptables commands have the following structure:
iptables [-t <table-name>] <command> <chain-name> \ <parameter-1> <option-1> \ <parameter-n> <option-n>
<table-name> ??? Specifies which table the rule applies to. If omitted, the filter table is used.
<command> ??? Specifies the action to perform, such as appending or deleting a rule.
<chain-name> ??? Specifies the chain to edit, create, or delete.
<parameter>-<option> pairs ??? Parameters and associated options that specify how to process a packet that matches the rule.
The length and complexity of an
iptables command can change significantly, based on its purpose.
For example, a command to remove a rule from a chain can be very short:
iptables -D <chain-name> <line-number>
In contrast, a command that adds a rule which filters packets from a particular subnet using a variety of specific parameters and options can be rather long. When constructing
iptables commands, it is important to remember that some parameters and options require further parameters and options to construct a valid rule. This can produce a cascading effect, with the further parameters requiring yet more parameters. Until every parameter and option that requires another set of options is satisfied, the rule is not valid.
Type
iptables -h to view a comprehensive list of iptables command structures.
2.9.2.??Differences Between IPTables and IPChains
Both
ipchains and iptables use chains of rules that operate within the Linux kernel to filter packets based on matches with specified rules or rule sets. However, iptables offers a more extensible way of filtering packets, giving the administrator greater control without building undue complexity into the system.
You should be aware of the following significant differences between
ipchains and iptables:
- Using
iptables, each filtered packet is processed using rules from only one chain rather than multiple chains. - For example, a FORWARD packet coming into a system using
ipchainswould have to go through the INPUT, FORWARD, and OUTPUT chains to continue to its destination. However,iptablesonly sends packets to the INPUT chain if they are destined for the local system, and only sends them to the OUTPUT chain if the local system generated the packets. It is therefore important to place the rule designed to catch a particular packet within the chain that actually handles the packet. - The DENY target has been changed to DROP.
- In
ipchains, packets that matched a rule in a chain could be directed to the DENY target. This target must be changed to DROP iniptables. - Order matters when placing options in a rule.
- In
ipchains, the order of the rule options does not matter.Theiptablescommand has a stricter syntax. Theiptablescommand requires that the protocol (ICMP, TCP, or UDP) be specified before the source or destination ports. - Network interfaces must be associated with the correct chains in firewall rules.
- For example, incoming interfaces (
-ioption) can only be used in INPUT or FORWARD chains. Similarly, outgoing interfaces (-ooption) can only be used in FORWARD or OUTPUT chains.In other words, INPUT chains and incoming interfaces work together; OUTPUT chains and outgoing interfaces work together. FORWARD chains work with both incoming and outgoing interfaces.OUTPUT chains are no longer used by incoming interfaces, and INPUT chains are not seen by packets moving through outgoing interfaces.
This is not a comprehensive list of the changes. Refer to Section??2.9.7, ???Additional Resources??? for more specific information.
2.9.5.??IPTables Control Scripts
There are two basic methods for controlling
iptables in Fedora:
- Firewall Configuration Tool (
system-config-securitylevel) ??? A graphical interface for creating, activating, and saving basic firewall rules. Refer to Section??2.8.2, ???Basic Firewall Configuration??? for more information. /sbin/service iptables??? Used to manipulate various functions of<option>iptablesusing its initscript. The following options are available:start??? If a firewall is configured (that is,/etc/sysconfig/iptablesexists), all runningiptablesare stopped completely and then started using the/sbin/iptables-restorecommand. This option only works if theipchainskernel module is not loaded. To check if this module is loaded, type the following command as root:[root at MyServer ~]# lsmod | grep ipchainsIf this command returns no output, it means the module is not loaded. If necessary, use the/sbin/rmmodcommand to remove the module.stop??? If a firewall is running, the firewall rules in memory are flushed, and all iptables modules and helpers are unloaded.If theIPTABLES_SAVE_ON_STOPdirective in the/etc/sysconfig/iptables-configconfiguration file is changed from its default value toyes, current rules are saved to/etc/sysconfig/iptablesand any existing rules are moved to the file/etc/sysconfig/iptables.save.Refer to Section??2.9.5.1, ???IPTables Control Scripts Configuration File??? for more information about theiptables-configfile.restart??? If a firewall is running, the firewall rules in memory are flushed, and the firewall is started again if it is configured in/etc/sysconfig/iptables. This option only works if theipchainskernel module is not loaded.If theIPTABLES_SAVE_ON_RESTARTdirective in the/etc/sysconfig/iptables-configconfiguration file is changed from its default value toyes, current rules are saved to/etc/sysconfig/iptablesand any existing rules are moved to the file/etc/sysconfig/iptables.save.Refer to Section??2.9.5.1, ???IPTables Control Scripts Configuration File??? for more information about theiptables-configfile.status??? Displays the status of the firewall and lists all active rules.The default configuration for this option displays IP addresses in each rule. To display domain and hostname information, edit the/etc/sysconfig/iptables-configfile and change the value ofIPTABLES_STATUS_NUMERICtono. Refer to Section??2.9.5.1, ???IPTables Control Scripts Configuration File??? for more information about theiptables-configfile.panic??? Flushes all firewall rules. The policy of all configured tables is set toDROP.This option could be useful if a server is known to be compromised. Rather than physically disconnecting from the network or shutting down the system, you can use this option to stop all further network traffic but leave the machine in a state ready for analysis or other forensics.save??? Saves firewall rules to/etc/sysconfig/iptablesusingiptables-save. Refer to Section??2.9.4, ???Saving IPTables Rules??? for more information.
Note
To use the same initscript commands to control netfilter for IPv6, substitute
ip6tables for iptables in the /sbin/service commands listed in this section. For more information about IPv6 and netfilter, refer to Section??2.9.6, ???IPTables and IPv6???.
2.9.5.1.??IPTables Control Scripts Configuration File
The behavior of the
iptables initscripts is controlled by the /etc/sysconfig/iptables-config configuration file. The following is a list of directives contained in this file:
IPTABLES_MODULES??? Specifies a space-separated list of additionaliptablesmodules to load when a firewall is activated. These can include connection tracking and NAT helpers.IPTABLES_MODULES_UNLOAD??? Unloads modules on restart and stop. This directive accepts the following values:yes??? The default value. This option must be set to achieve a correct state for a firewall restart or stop.no??? This option should only be set if there are problems unloading the netfilter modules.
IPTABLES_SAVE_ON_STOP??? Saves current firewall rules to/etc/sysconfig/iptableswhen the firewall is stopped. This directive accepts the following values:yes??? Saves existing rules to/etc/sysconfig/iptableswhen the firewall is stopped, moving the previous version to the/etc/sysconfig/iptables.savefile.no??? The default value. Does not save existing rules when the firewall is stopped.
IPTABLES_SAVE_ON_RESTART??? Saves current firewall rules when the firewall is restarted. This directive accepts the following values:yes??? Saves existing rules to/etc/sysconfig/iptableswhen the firewall is restarted, moving the previous version to the/etc/sysconfig/iptables.savefile.no??? The default value. Does not save existing rules when the firewall is restarted.
IPTABLES_SAVE_COUNTER??? Saves and restores all packet and byte counters in all chains and rules. This directive accepts the following values:yes??? Saves the counter values.no??? The default value. Does not save the counter values.
IPTABLES_STATUS_NUMERIC??? Outputs IP addresses in numeric form instead of domain or hostnames. This directive accepts the following values:yes??? The default value. Returns only IP addresses within a status output.no??? Returns domain or hostnames within a status output.
2.9.6.??IPTables and IPv6
If the
iptables-ipv6 package is installed, netfilter in Fedora can filter the next-generation IPv6 Internet protocol. The command used to manipulate the IPv6 netfilter is ip6tables.
Most directives for this command are identical to those used for
iptables, except the nat table is not yet supported. This means that it is not yet possible to perform IPv6 network address translation tasks, such as masquerading and port forwarding.
Rules for
ip6tables are saved in the /etc/sysconfig/ip6tables file. Previous rules saved by the ip6tables initscripts are saved in the /etc/sysconfig/ip6tables.save file.
Configuration options for the
ip6tables init script are stored in /etc/sysconfig/ip6tables-config, and the names for each directive vary slightly from their iptables counterparts.
For example, the
iptables-config directive IPTABLES_MODULES:the equivalent in the ip6tables-config file is IP6TABLES_MODULES.
2.9.4.??Saving IPTables Rules
Rules created with the
iptables command are stored in memory. If the system is restarted before saving the iptables rule set, all rules are lost. For netfilter rules to persist through a system reboot, they need to be saved. To save netfilter rules, type the following command as root:
/sbin/service iptables save
This executes the
iptables init script, which runs the /sbin/iptables-save program and writes the current iptables configuration to /etc/sysconfig/iptables. The existing /etc/sysconfig/iptables file is saved as /etc/sysconfig/iptables.save.
The next time the system boots, the
iptables init script reapplies the rules saved in /etc/sysconfig/iptables by using the /sbin/iptables-restore command.
While it is always a good idea to test a new
iptables rule before committing it to the /etc/sysconfig/iptables file, it is possible to copy iptables rules into this file from another system's version of this file. This provides a quick way to distribute sets of iptables rules to multiple machines.
You can also save the iptables rules to a separate file for distribution, backup or other purposes. To save your iptables rules, type the following command as root:
[root at myServer ~]# iptables-save >where<filename><filename>is a user-defined name for your ruleset.
Important
If distributing the
/etc/sysconfig/iptables file to other machines, type /sbin/service iptables restart for the new rules to take effect.
Note
Note the difference between the
iptables command (/sbin/iptables), which is used to manipulate the tables and chains that constitute the iptables functionality, and the iptables service (/sbin/iptables service), which is used to enable and disable the iptables service itself.
2.9.??IPTables
Included with Fedora are advanced tools for network packet filtering ??? the process of controlling network packets as they enter, move through, and exit the network stack within the kernel. Kernel versions prior to 2.4 relied on
ipchains for packet filtering and used lists of rules applied to packets at each step of the filtering process. The 2.4 kernel introduced iptables (also called netfilter), which is similar to ipchains but greatly expands the scope and control available for filtering network packets.
This chapter focuses on packet filtering basics, defines the differences between
ipchains and iptables, explains various options available with iptables commands, and explains how filtering rules can be preserved between system reboots.
Refer to Section??2.9.7, ???Additional Resources??? for instructions on how to construct
iptables rules and setting up a firewall based on these rules.
Important
The default firewall mechanism in the 2.4 and later kernels is
iptables, but iptables cannot be used if ipchains is already running. If ipchains is present at boot time, the kernel issues an error and fails to start iptables.
The functionality of
ipchains is not affected by these errors.
2.9.1.??Packet Filtering
The Linux kernel uses the Netfilter facility to filter packets, allowing some of them to be received by or pass through the system while stopping others. This facility is built in to the Linux kernel, and has three built-in tables or rules lists, as follows:
filter??? The default table for handling network packets.nat??? Used to alter packets that create a new connection and used for Network Address Translation (NAT).mangle??? Used for specific types of packet alteration.
Each table has a group of built-in chains, which correspond to the actions performed on the packet by
netfilter.
The built-in chains for the
filter table are as follows:
- INPUT ??? Applies to network packets that are targeted for the host.
- OUTPUT ??? Applies to locally-generated network packets.
- FORWARD ??? Applies to network packets routed through the host.
The built-in chains for the
nat table are as follows:
- PREROUTING ??? Alters network packets when they arrive.
- OUTPUT ??? Alters locally-generated network packets before they are sent out.
- POSTROUTING ??? Alters network packets before they are sent out.
The built-in chains for the
mangle table are as follows:
- INPUT ??? Alters network packets targeted for the host.
- OUTPUT ??? Alters locally-generated network packets before they are sent out.
- FORWARD ??? Alters network packets routed through the host.
- PREROUTING ??? Alters incoming network packets before they are routed.
- POSTROUTING ??? Alters network packets before they are sent out.
Every network packet received by or sent from a Linux system is subject to at least one table. However, a packet may be subjected to multiple rules within each table before emerging at the end of the chain. The structure and purpose of these rules may vary, but they usually seek to identify a packet coming from or going to a particular IP address, or set of addresses, when using a particular protocol and network service.
Note
By default, firewall rules are saved in the
/etc/sysconfig/iptables or /etc/sysconfig/ip6tables files.
The
iptables service starts before any DNS-related services when a Linux system is booted. This means that firewall rules can only reference numeric IP addresses (for example, 192.168.0.1). Domain names (for example, host.example.com) in such rules produce errors.
Regardless of their destination, when packets match a particular rule in one of the tables, a target or action is applied to them. If the rule specifies an
ACCEPT target for a matching packet, the packet skips the rest of the rule checks and is allowed to continue to its destination. If a rule specifies a DROP target, that packet is refused access to the system and nothing is sent back to the host that sent the packet. If a rule specifies a QUEUE target, the packet is passed to user-space. If a rule specifies the optional REJECT target, the packet is dropped, but an error packet is sent to the packet's originator.
Every chain has a default policy to
ACCEPT, DROP, REJECT, or QUEUE. If none of the rules in the chain apply to the packet, then the packet is dealt with in accordance with the default policy.
The
iptables command configures these tables, as well as sets up new tables if necessary.
2.9.3.4.4.??Additional Match Option Modules
Additional match options are available through modules loaded by the
iptables command.
To use a match option module, load the module by name using the
-m <module-name>, where <module-name> is the name of the module.
Many modules are available by default. You can also create modules to provide additional functionality.
The following is a partial list of the most commonly used modules:
limitmodule ??? Places limits on how many packets are matched to a particular rule.When used in conjunction with theLOGtarget, thelimitmodule can prevent a flood of matching packets from filling up the system log with repetitive messages or using up system resources.Refer to Section??2.9.3.5, ???Target Options??? for more information about theLOGtarget.Thelimitmodule enables the following options:--limit??? Sets the maximum number of matches for a particular time period, specified as a<value>/<period>--limit 5/hourallows five rule matches per hour.Periods can be specified in seconds, minutes, hours, or days.If a number and time modifier are not used, the default value of3/houris assumed.--limit-burst??? Sets a limit on the number of packets able to match a rule at one time.This option is specified as an integer and should be used in conjunction with the--limitoption.If no value is specified, the default value of five (5) is assumed.
statemodule ??? Enables state matching.Thestatemodule enables the following options:--state??? match a packet with the following connection states:ESTABLISHED??? The matching packet is associated with other packets in an established connection. You need to accept this state if you want to maintain a connection between a client and a server.INVALID??? The matching packet cannot be tied to a known connection.NEW??? The matching packet is either creating a new connection or is part of a two-way connection not previously seen. You need to accept this state if you want to allow new connections to a service.RELATED??? The matching packet is starting a new connection related in some way to an existing connection. An example of this is FTP, which uses one connection for control traffic (port 21), and a separate connection for data transfer (port 20).
These connection states can be used in combination with one another by separating them with commas, such as-m state --state INVALID,NEW.
macmodule ??? Enables hardware MAC address matching.Themacmodule enables the following option:--mac-source??? Matches a MAC address of the network interface card that sent the packet. To exclude a MAC address from a rule, place an exclamation point character (!) after the--mac-sourcematch option.
Refer to the
iptables man page for more match options available through modules.
2.9.3.4.3.??ICMP Protocol
The following match options are available for the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) (
-p icmp):
--icmp-type??? Sets the name or number of the ICMP type to match with the rule. A list of valid ICMP names can be retrieved by typing theiptables -p icmp -hcommand.
2.9.3.4.2.??UDP Protocol
These match options are available for the UDP protocol (
-p udp):
--dport??? Specifies the destination port of the UDP packet, using the service name, port number, or range of port numbers. The--destination-portmatch option is synonymous with--dport.--sport??? Specifies the source port of the UDP packet, using the service name, port number, or range of port numbers. The--source-portmatch option is synonymous with--sport.
For the
--dport and --sport options, to specify a range of port numbers, separate the two numbers with a colon (:). For example: -p tcp --dport 3000:3200. The largest acceptable valid range is 0:65535.
2.7.6.2.??Manual IPsec Host-to-Host Configuration
The first step in creating a connection is to gather system and network information from each workstation. For a host-to-host connection, you need the following:
- The IP address of each host
- A unique name, for example,
ipsec1. This is used to identify the IPsec connection and to distinguish it from other devices or connections. - A fixed encryption key or one automatically generated by
racoon. - A pre-shared authentication key that is used during the initial stage of the connection and to exchange encryption keys during the session.
For example, suppose Workstation A and Workstation B want to connect to each other through an IPsec tunnel. They want to connect using a pre-shared key with the value of
Key_Value01, and the users agree to let racoon automatically generate and share an authentication key between each host. Both host users decide to name their connections ipsec1.
Note
You should choose a PSK that uses a mixture of upper- and lower-case characters, numbers and punctuation. An easily-guessable PSK constitutes a security risk.
It is not necessary to use the same connection name for each host. You should choose a name that is convenient and meaningful for your installation.
The following is the IPsec configuration file for Workstation A for a host-to-host IPsec connection with Workstation B. The unique name to identify the connection in this example is
ipsec1, so the resulting file is called /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ipsec1.
DST=X.X.X.XTYPE=IPSEC
ONBOOT=no
IKE_METHOD=PSK
For Workstation A,
X.X.X.X is the IP address of Workstation B. For Workstation B, X.X.X.X is the IP address of Workstation A. This connection is not set to initiate on boot-up (ONBOOT=no) and it uses the pre-shared key method of authentication (IKE_METHOD=PSK).
The following is the content of the pre-shared key file (called
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/keys-ipsec1) that both workstations need to authenticate each other. The contents of this file should be identical on both workstations, and only the root user should be able to read or write this file.
IKE_PSK=Key_Value01
Important
To change the
keys-ipsec1 file so that only the root user can read or edit the file, use the following command after creating the file:
[root at myServer ~] # chmod 600 /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/keys-ipsec1
To change the authentication key at any time, edit the
keys-ipsec1 file on both workstations. Both authentication keys must be identical for proper connectivity.
The next example shows the specific configuration for the phase 1 connection to the remote host. The file is called
X.X.X.X.confX.X.X.X is the IP address of the remote IPsec host. Note that this file is automatically generated when the IPsec tunnel is activated and should not be edited directly.
remote X.X.X.X{
exchange_mode aggressive, main;
my_identifier address;
proposal {
encryption_algorithm 3des;
hash_algorithm sha1;
authentication_method pre_shared_key;
dh_group 2 ;
}
}
The default phase 1 configuration file that is created when an IPsec connection is initialized contains the following statements used by the Fedora implementation of IPsec:
- remote
X.X.X.X - Specifies that the subsequent stanzas of this configuration file apply only to the remote node identified by the
X.X.X.XIP address. - exchange_mode aggressive
- The default configuration for IPsec on Fedora uses an aggressive authentication mode, which lowers the connection overhead while allowing configuration of several IPsec connections with multiple hosts.
- my_identifier address
- Specifies the identification method to use when authenticating nodes. Fedora uses IP addresses to identify nodes.
- encryption_algorithm 3des
- Specifies the encryption cipher used during authentication. By default, Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES) is used.
- hash_algorithm sha1;
- Specifies the hash algorithm used during phase 1 negotiation between nodes. By default, Secure Hash Algorithm version 1 is used.
- authentication_method pre_shared_key
- Specifies the authentication method used during node negotiation. By default, Fedora uses pre-shared keys for authentication.
- dh_group 2
- Specifies the Diffie-Hellman group number for establishing dynamically-generated session keys. By default, modp1024 (group 2) is used.
2.7.6.2.1.??The Racoon Configuration File
The
/etc/racoon/racoon.conf files should be identical on all IPsec nodes except for the include "/etc/racoon/X.X.X.X.conf" statement. This statement (and the file it references) is generated when the IPsec tunnel is activated. For Workstation A, the X.X.X.X in the include statement is Workstation B's IP address. The opposite is true of Workstation B. The following shows a typical racoon.conf file when the IPsec connection is activated.
# Racoon IKE daemon configuration file.
# See 'man racoon.conf' for a description of the format and entries.
path include "/etc/racoon";
path pre_shared_key "/etc/racoon/psk.txt";
path certificate "/etc/racoon/certs";
sainfo anonymous
{
pfs_group 2;
lifetime time 1 hour ;
encryption_algorithm 3des, blowfish 448, rijndael ;
authentication_algorithm hmac_sha1, hmac_md5 ;
compression_algorithm deflate ;
}
include "/etc/racoon/X.X.X.X.conf";
This default
racoon.conf file includes defined paths for IPsec configuration, pre-shared key files, and certificates. The fields in sainfo anonymous describe the phase 2 SA between the IPsec nodes ??? the nature of the IPsec connection (including the supported encryption algorithms used) and the method of exchanging keys. The following list defines the fields of phase 2:
- sainfo anonymous
- Denotes that SA can anonymously initialize with any peer provided that the IPsec credentials match.
- pfs_group 2
- Defines the Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol, which determines the method by which the IPsec nodes establish a mutual temporary session key for the second phase of IPsec connectivity. By default, the Fedora implementation of IPsec uses group 2 (or
modp1024) of the Diffie-Hellman cryptographic key exchange groups. Group 2 uses a 1024-bit modular exponentiation that prevents attackers from decrypting previous IPsec transmissions even if a private key is compromised. - lifetime time 1 hour
- This parameter specifies the lifetime of an SA and can be quantified either by time or by bytes of data. The default Fedora implementation of IPsec specifies a one hour lifetime.
- encryption_algorithm 3des, blowfish 448, rijndael
- Specifies the supported encryption ciphers for phase 2. Fedora supports 3DES, 448-bit Blowfish, and Rijndael (the cipher used in the Advanced Encryption Standard, or AES).
- authentication_algorithm hmac_sha1, hmac_md5
- Lists the supported hash algorithms for authentication. Supported modes are sha1 and md5 hashed message authentication codes (HMAC).
- compression_algorithm deflate
- Defines the Deflate compression algorithm for IP Payload Compression (IPCOMP) support, which allows for potentially faster transmission of IP datagrams over slow connections.
To start the connection, use the following command on each host:
[root at myServer ~]# /sbin/ifup <nickname>
where <nickname> is the name you specified for the IPsec connection.
To test the IPsec connection, run the
tcpdump utility to view the network packets being transfered between the hosts and verify that they are encrypted via IPsec. The packet should include an AH header and should be shown as ESP packets. ESP means it is encrypted. For example:
[root at myServer ~]# tcpdump -n -i eth0 host <targetSystem> IP 172.16.45.107 > 172.16.44.192: AH(spi=0x0954ccb6,seq=0xbb): ESP(spi=0x0c9f2164,seq=0xbb)
- Prev2.7.6.??IPsec Host-to-Host Configuration
- Up
- Home
- Next2.7.7.??IPsec Network-to-Network Configuration
2.7.7.2.??Manual IPsec Network-to-Network Configuration
Suppose LAN A (lana.example.com) and LAN B (lanb.example.com) want to connect to each other through an IPsec tunnel. The network address for LAN A is in the 192.168.1.0/24 range, while LAN B uses the 192.168.2.0/24 range. The gateway IP address is 192.168.1.254 for LAN A and 192.168.2.254 for LAN B. The IPsec routers are separate from each LAN gateway and use two network devices: eth0 is assigned to an externally-accessible static IP address which accesses the Internet, while eth1 acts as a routing point to process and transmit LAN packets from one network node to the remote network nodes.
The IPsec connection between each network uses a pre-shared key with the value of
r3dh4tl1nux, and the administrators of A and B agree to let racoon automatically generate and share an authentication key between each IPsec router. The administrator of LAN A decides to name the IPsec connection ipsec0, while the administrator of LAN B names the IPsec connection ipsec1.
The following example shows the contents of the
ifcfg file for a network-to-network IPsec connection for LAN A. The unique name to identify the connection in this example is ipsec0, so the resulting file is called /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ipsec0.
TYPE=IPSEC
ONBOOT=yes
IKE_METHOD=PSK
SRCGW=192.168.1.254
DSTGW=192.168.2.254
SRCNET=192.168.1.0/24
DSTNET=192.168.2.0/24
DST=X.X.X.X
The following list describes the contents of this file:
- TYPE=IPSEC
- Specifies the type of connection.
- ONBOOT=yes
- Specifies that the connection should initiate on boot-up.
- IKE_METHOD=PSK
- Specifies that the connection uses the pre-shared key method of authentication.
- SRCGW=192.168.1.254
- The IP address of the source gateway. For LAN A, this is the LAN A gateway, and for LAN B, the LAN B gateway.
- DSTGW=192.168.2.254
- The IP address of the destination gateway. For LAN A, this is the LAN B gateway, and for LAN B, the LAN A gateway.
- SRCNET=192.168.1.0/24
- Specifies the source network for the IPsec connection, which in this example is the network range for LAN A.
- DSTNET=192.168.2.0/24
- Specifies the destination network for the IPsec connection, which in this example is the network range for LAN B.
- DST=X.X.X.X
- The externally-accessible IP address of LAN B.
The following example is the content of the pre-shared key file called
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/keys-ipsecX (where X is 0 for LAN A and 1 for LAN B) that both networks use to authenticate each other. The contents of this file should be identical and only the root user should be able to read or write this file.
IKE_PSK=r3dh4tl1nux
Important
To change the
keys-ipsecX file so that only the root user can read or edit the file, use the following command after creating the file:
chmod 600 /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/keys-ipsec1
To change the authentication key at any time, edit the
keys-ipsecX file on both IPsec routers. Both keys must be identical for proper connectivity.
The following example is the contents of the
/etc/racoon/racoon.conf configuration file for the IPsec connection. Note that the include line at the bottom of the file is automatically generated and only appears if the IPsec tunnel is running.
# Racoon IKE daemon configuration file.
# See 'man racoon.conf' for a description of the format and entries.
path include "/etc/racoon";
path pre_shared_key "/etc/racoon/psk.txt";
path certificate "/etc/racoon/certs";
sainfo anonymous
{
pfs_group 2;
lifetime time 1 hour ;
encryption_algorithm 3des, blowfish 448, rijndael ;
authentication_algorithm hmac_sha1, hmac_md5 ;
compression_algorithm deflate ;
}
include "/etc/racoon/X.X.X.X.conf"
The following is the specific configuration for the connection to the remote network. The file is called
X.X.X.X.confX.X.X.X is the IP address of the remote IPsec router). Note that this file is automatically generated when the IPsec tunnel is activated and should not be edited directly.
remote X.X.X.X{
exchange_mode aggressive, main;
my_identifier address;
proposal {
encryption_algorithm 3des;
hash_algorithm sha1;
authentication_method pre_shared_key;
dh_group 2 ;
}
}
Prior to starting the IPsec connection, IP forwarding should be enabled in the kernel. To enable IP forwarding:
- Edit
/etc/sysctl.confand setnet.ipv4.ip_forwardto1. - Use the following command to enable the change:
[root at myServer ~] # sysctl -p /etc/sysctl.conf
To start the IPsec connection, use the following command on each router:
[root at myServer ~] # /sbin/ifup ipsec0
The connections are activated, and both LAN A and LAN B are able to communicate with each other. The routes are created automatically via the initialization script called by running
ifup on the IPsec connection. To show a list of routes for the network, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # /sbin/ip route list
To test the IPsec connection, run the
tcpdump utility on the externally-routable device (eth0 in this example) to view the network packets being transfered between the hosts (or networks), and verify that they are encrypted via IPsec. For example, to check the IPsec connectivity of LAN A, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # tcpdump -n -i eth0 host lana.example.com
The packet should include an AH header and should be shown as ESP packets. ESP means it is encrypted. For example (back slashes denote a continuation of one line):
12:24:26.155529 lanb.example.com > lana.example.com: AH(spi=0x021c9834,seq=0x358): \ lanb.example.com > lana.example.com: ESP(spi=0x00c887ad,seq=0x358) (DF) \ (ipip-proto-4)
- Prev2.7.7.??IPsec Network-to-Network Configuration
- Up
- Home
- Next2.7.8.??Starting and Stopping an IPsec Connection
2.6.10.??Additional Resources
For more information about Kerberos, refer to the following resources.
2.6.10.1.??Installed Kerberos Documentation
- The Kerberos V5 Installation Guide and the Kerberos V5 System Administrator's Guide in PostScript and HTML formats. These can be found in the
/usr/share/doc/krb5-server-directory (where<version-number>/<version-number>is the version number of thekrb5-serverpackage installed on your system). - The Kerberos V5 UNIX User's Guide in PostScript and HTML formats. These can be found in the
/usr/share/doc/krb5-workstation-directory (where<version-number>/<version-number>is the version number of thekrb5-workstationpackage installed on your system). - Kerberos man pages ??? There are a number of man pages for the various applications and configuration files involved with a Kerberos implementation. The following is a list of some of the more important man pages.
- Client Applications
man kerberos??? An introduction to the Kerberos system which describes how credentials work and provides recommendations for obtaining and destroying Kerberos tickets. The bottom of the man page references a number of related man pages.man kinit??? Describes how to use this command to obtain and cache a ticket-granting ticket.man kdestroy??? Describes how to use this command to destroy Kerberos credentials.man klist??? Describes how to use this command to list cached Kerberos credentials.
- Administrative Applications
man kadmin??? Describes how to use this command to administer the Kerberos V5 database.man kdb5_util??? Describes how to use this command to create and perform low-level administrative functions on the Kerberos V5 database.
- Server Applications
man krb5kdc??? Describes available command line options for the Kerberos V5 KDC.man kadmind??? Describes available command line options for the Kerberos V5 administration server.
- Configuration Files
man krb5.conf??? Describes the format and options available within the configuration file for the Kerberos V5 library.man kdc.conf??? Describes the format and options available within the configuration file for the Kerberos V5 AS and KDC.
2.6.6.??Configuring a Kerberos 5 Client
Setting up a Kerberos 5 client is less involved than setting up a server. At a minimum, install the client packages and provide each client with a valid
krb5.conf configuration file. While ssh and slogin are the preferred method of remotely logging in to client systems, Kerberized versions of rsh and rlogin are still available, though deploying them requires that a few more configuration changes be made.
- Be sure that time synchronization is in place between the Kerberos client and the KDC. Refer to Section??2.6.5, ???Configuring a Kerberos 5 Server??? for more information. In addition, verify that DNS is working properly on the Kerberos client before configuring the Kerberos client programs.
- Install the
krb5-libsandkrb5-workstationpackages on all of the client machines. Supply a valid/etc/krb5.conffile for each client (usually this can be the samekrb5.conffile used by the KDC). - Before a workstation in the realm can use Kerberos to authenticate users who connect using
sshor Kerberizedrshorrlogin, it must have its own host principal in the Kerberos database. Thesshd,kshd, andklogindserver programs all need access to the keys for the host service's principal. Additionally, in order to use the kerberizedrshandrloginservices, that workstation must have thexinetdpackage installed.Usingkadmin, add a host principal for the workstation on the KDC. The instance in this case is the hostname of the workstation. Use the-randkeyoption for thekadmin'saddprinccommand to create the principal and assign it a random key:addprinc -randkey host/
blah.example.comNow that the principal has been created, keys can be extracted for the workstation by runningkadminon the workstation itself, and using thektaddcommand withinkadmin:ktadd -k /etc/krb5.keytab host/
blah.example.com - To use other kerberized network services, they must first be started. Below is a list of some common kerberized services and instructions about enabling them:
ssh??? OpenSSH uses GSS-API to authenticate users to servers if the client's and server's configuration both haveGSSAPIAuthenticationenabled. If the client also hasGSSAPIDelegateCredentialsenabled, the user's credentials are made available on the remote system.rshandrlogin??? To use the kerberized versions ofrshandrlogin, enableklogin,eklogin, andkshell.- Telnet ??? To use kerberized Telnet,
krb5-telnetmust be enabled. - FTP ??? To provide FTP access, create and extract a key for the principal with a root of
ftp. Be certain to set the instance to the fully qualified hostname of the FTP server, then enablegssftp. - IMAP ??? To use a kerberized IMAP server, the
cyrus-imappackage uses Kerberos 5 if it also has thecyrus-sasl-gssapipackage installed. Thecyrus-sasl-gssapipackage contains the Cyrus SASL plugins which support GSS-API authentication. Cyrus IMAP should function properly with Kerberos as long as thecyrususer is able to find the proper key in/etc/krb5.keytab, and the root for the principal is set toimap(created withkadmin).An alternative tocyrus-imapcan be found in thedovecotpackage, which is also included in Fedora. This package contains an IMAP server but does not, to date, support GSS-API and Kerberos. - CVS ??? To use a kerberized CVS server,
gserveruses a principal with a root ofcvsand is otherwise identical to the CVSpserver.
2.6.5.??Configuring a Kerberos 5 Server
When setting up Kerberos, install the KDC first. If it is necessary to set up slave servers, install the master first.
To configure the first Kerberos KDC, follow these steps:
- Ensure that time synchronization and DNS are functioning correctly on all client and server machines before configuring Kerberos. Pay particular attention to time synchronization between the Kerberos server and its clients. If the time difference between the server and client is greater than five minutes (this is configurable in Kerberos 5), Kerberos clients can not authenticate to the server. This time synchronization is necessary to prevent an attacker from using an old Kerberos ticket to masquerade as a valid user.It is advisable to set up a Network Time Protocol (NTP) compatible client/server network even if Kerberos is not being used. Fedora includes the
ntppackage for this purpose. Refer to/usr/share/doc/ntp-(where<version-number>/index.html<version-number>is the version number of thentppackage installed on your system) for details about how to set up Network Time Protocol servers, and http://www.ntp.org for more information about NTP. - Install the
krb5-libs,krb5-server, andkrb5-workstationpackages on the dedicated machine which runs the KDC. This machine needs to be very secure ??? if possible, it should not run any services other than the KDC. - Edit the
/etc/krb5.confand/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/kdc.confconfiguration files to reflect the realm name and domain-to-realm mappings. A simple realm can be constructed by replacing instances ofEXAMPLE.COMandexample.comwith the correct domain name ??? being certain to keep uppercase and lowercase names in the correct format ??? and by changing the KDC fromkerberos.example.comto the name of the Kerberos server. By convention, all realm names are uppercase and all DNS hostnames and domain names are lowercase. For full details about the formats of these configuration files, refer to their respective man pages. - Create the database using the
kdb5_utilutility from a shell prompt:/usr/kerberos/sbin/kdb5_util create -s
Thecreatecommand creates the database that stores keys for the Kerberos realm. The-sswitch forces creation of a stash file in which the master server key is stored. If no stash file is present from which to read the key, the Kerberos server (krb5kdc) prompts the user for the master server password (which can be used to regenerate the key) every time it starts. - Edit the
/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/kadm5.aclfile. This file is used bykadmindto determine which principals have administrative access to the Kerberos database and their level of access. Most organizations can get by with a single line:*/admin at EXAMPLE.COM????*
Most users are represented in the database by a single principal (with a NULL, or empty, instance, such as joe at EXAMPLE.COM). In this configuration, users with a second principal with an instance of admin (for example, joe/admin at EXAMPLE.COM) are able to wield full power over the realm's Kerberos database.Afterkadmindhas been started on the server, any user can access its services by runningkadminon any of the clients or servers in the realm. However, only users listed in thekadm5.aclfile can modify the database in any way, except for changing their own passwords.Note
Thekadminutility communicates with thekadmindserver over the network, and uses Kerberos to handle authentication. Consequently, the first principal must already exist before connecting to the server over the network to administer it. Create the first principal with thekadmin.localcommand, which is specifically designed to be used on the same host as the KDC and does not use Kerberos for authentication.Type the followingkadmin.localcommand at the KDC terminal to create the first principal:/usr/kerberos/sbin/kadmin.local -q "addprinc
username/admin" - Start Kerberos using the following commands:
/sbin/service krb5kdc start /sbin/service kadmin start /sbin/service krb524 start
- Add principals for the users using the
addprinccommand withinkadmin.kadminandkadmin.localare command line interfaces to the KDC. As such, many commands ??? such asaddprinc??? are available after launching thekadminprogram. Refer to thekadminman page for more information. - Verify that the KDC is issuing tickets. First, run
kinitto obtain a ticket and store it in a credential cache file. Next, useklistto view the list of credentials in the cache and usekdestroyto destroy the cache and the credentials it contains.Note
By default,kinitattempts to authenticate using the same system login username (not the Kerberos server). If that username does not correspond to a principal in the Kerberos database,kinitissues an error message. If that happens, supplykinitwith the name of the correct principal as an argument on the command line (kinit).<principal>
Once these steps are completed, the Kerberos server should be up and running.
2.6.7.??Domain-to-Realm Mapping
When a client attempts to access a service running on a particular server, it knows the name of the service (host) and the name of the server (foo.example.com), but because more than one realm may be deployed on your network, it must guess at the name of the realm in which the service resides.
By default, the name of the realm is taken to be the DNS domain name of the server, upper-cased.
foo.example.org???????EXAMPLE.ORG
foo.example.com???????EXAMPLE.COM
foo.hq.example.com???????HQ.EXAMPLE.COM
In some configurations, this will be sufficient, but in others, the realm name which is derived will be the name of a non-existant realm. In these cases, the mapping from the server's DNS domain name to the name of its realm must be specified in the domain_realm section of the client system's
krb5.conf. For example:
[domain_realm] .example.com = EXAMPLE.COM example.com = EXAMPLE.COM
The above configuration specifies two mappings. The first mapping specifies that any system in the "example.com" DNS domain belongs to the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The second specifies that a system with the exact name "example.com" is also in the realm. (The distinction between a domain and a specific host is marked by the presence or lack of an initial ".".) The mapping can also be stored directly in DNS.
2.6.3.??How Kerberos Works
Kerberos differs from username/password authentication methods. Instead of authenticating each user to each network service, Kerberos uses symmetric encryption and a trusted third party (a KDC), to authenticate users to a suite of network services. When a user authenticates to the KDC, the KDC sends a ticket specific to that session back to the user's machine, and any Kerberos-aware services look for the ticket on the user's machine rather than requiring the user to authenticate using a password.
When a user on a Kerberos-aware network logs in to their workstation, their principal is sent to the KDC as part of a request for a TGT from the Authentication Server. This request can be sent by the log-in program so that it is transparent to the user, or can be sent by the
kinit program after the user logs in.
The KDC then checks for the principal in its database. If the principal is found, the KDC creates a TGT, which is encrypted using the user's key and returned to that user.
The login or
kinit program on the client then decrypts the TGT using the user's key, which it computes from the user's password. The user's key is used only on the client machine and is not transmitted over the network.
The TGT is set to expire after a certain period of time (usually ten to twenty-four hours) and is stored in the client machine's credentials cache. An expiration time is set so that a compromised TGT is of use to an attacker for only a short period of time. After the TGT has been issued, the user does not have to re-enter their password until the TGT expires or until they log out and log in again.
Whenever the user needs access to a network service, the client software uses the TGT to request a new ticket for that specific service from the TGS. The service ticket is then used to authenticate the user to that service transparently.
Warning
The Kerberos system can be compromised if a user on the network authenticates against a non-Kerberos aware service by transmitting a password in plain text. The use of non-Kerberos aware services is highly discouraged. Such services include Telnet and FTP. The use of other encrypted protocols, such as SSH or SSL-secured services, however, is preferred, although not ideal.
This is only a broad overview of how Kerberos authentication works. Refer to Section??2.6.10, ???Additional Resources??? for links to more in-depth information.
Note
Kerberos depends on the following network services to function correctly.
- Approximate clock synchronization between the machines on the network.A clock synchronization program should be set up for the network, such as
ntpd. Refer to/usr/share/doc/ntp-for details on setting up Network Time Protocol servers (where<version-number>/index.html<version-number>is the version number of thentppackage installed on your system). - Domain Name Service (DNS).You should ensure that the DNS entries and hosts on the network are all properly configured. Refer to the Kerberos V5 System Administrator's Guide in
/usr/share/doc/krb5-server-for more information (where<version-number><version-number>is the version number of thekrb5-serverpackage installed on your system).
2.6.2.??Kerberos Terminology
Kerberos has its own terminology to define various aspects of the service. Before learning how Kerberos works, it is important to learn the following terms.
- authentication server (AS)
- A server that issues tickets for a desired service which are in turn given to users for access to the service. The AS responds to requests from clients who do not have or do not send credentials with a request. It is usually used to gain access to the ticket-granting server (TGS) service by issuing a ticket-granting ticket (TGT). The AS usually runs on the same host as the key distribution center (KDC).
- ciphertext
- Encrypted data.
- client
- An entity on the network (a user, a host, or an application) that can receive a ticket from Kerberos.
- credentials
- A temporary set of electronic credentials that verify the identity of a client for a particular service. Also called a ticket.
- credential cache or ticket file
- A file which contains the keys for encrypting communications between a user and various network services. Kerberos 5 supports a framework for using other cache types, such as shared memory, but files are more thoroughly supported.
- crypt hash
- A one-way hash used to authenticate users. These are more secure than using unencrypted data, but they are still relatively easy to decrypt for an experienced cracker.
- GSS-API
- The Generic Security Service Application Program Interface (defined in RFC-2743 published by The Internet Engineering Task Force) is a set of functions which provide security services. This API is used by clients and services to authenticate to each other without either program having specific knowledge of the underlying mechanism. If a network service (such as cyrus-IMAP) uses GSS-API, it can authenticate using Kerberos.
- hash
- Also known as a hash value. A value generated by passing a string through a hash function. These values are typically used to ensure that transmitted data has not been tampered with.
- hash function
- A way of generating a digital "fingerprint" from input data. These functions rearrange, transpose or otherwise alter data to produce a hash value.
- key
- Data used when encrypting or decrypting other data. Encrypted data cannot be decrypted without the proper key or extremely good fortune on the part of the cracker.
- key distribution center (KDC)
- A service that issues Kerberos tickets, and which usually run on the same host as the ticket-granting server (TGS).
- keytab (or key table)
- A file that includes an unencrypted list of principals and their keys. Servers retrieve the keys they need from keytab files instead of using
kinit. The default keytab file is/etc/krb5.keytab. The KDC administration server,/usr/kerberos/sbin/kadmind, is the only service that uses any other file (it uses/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/kadm5.keytab). - kinit
- The
kinitcommand allows a principal who has already logged in to obtain and cache the initial ticket-granting ticket (TGT). Refer to thekinitman page for more information. - principal (or principal name)
- The principal is the unique name of a user or service allowed to authenticate using Kerberos. A principal follows the form
root[/instance]@REALM. For a typical user, the root is the same as their login ID. Theinstanceis optional. If the principal has an instance, it is separated from the root with a forward slash ("/"). An empty string ("") is considered a valid instance (which differs from the defaultNULLinstance), but using it can be confusing. All principals in a realm have their own key, which for users is derived from a password or is randomly set for services. - realm
- A network that uses Kerberos, composed of one or more servers called KDCs and a potentially large number of clients.
- service
- A program accessed over the network.
- ticket
- A temporary set of electronic credentials that verify the identity of a client for a particular service. Also called credentials.
- ticket-granting server (TGS)
- A server that issues tickets for a desired service which are in turn given to users for access to the service. The TGS usually runs on the same host as the KDC.
- ticket-granting ticket (TGT)
- A special ticket that allows the client to obtain additional tickets without applying for them from the KDC.
- unencrypted password
- A plain text, human-readable password.
2.6.4.??Kerberos and PAM
Kerberos-aware services do not currently make use of Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) ??? these services bypass PAM completely. However, applications that use PAM can make use of Kerberos for authentication if the
pam_krb5 module (provided in the pam_krb5 package) is installed. The pam_krb5 package contains sample configuration files that allow services such as login and gdm to authenticate users as well as obtain initial credentials using their passwords. If access to network servers is always performed using Kerberos-aware services or services that use GSS-API, such as IMAP, the network can be considered reasonably safe.
Important
Administrators should be careful not to allow users to authenticate to most network services using Kerberos passwords. Many protocols used by these services do not encrypt the password before sending it over the network, destroying the benefits of the Kerberos system. For example, users should not be allowed to authenticate to Telnet services with the same password they use for Kerberos authentication.
2.6.9.??Setting Up Cross Realm Authentication
Cross-realm authentication is the term which is used to describe situations in which clients (typically users) of one realm use Kerberos to authenticate to services (typically server processes running on a particular server system) which belong to a realm other than their own.
For the simplest case, in order for a client of a realm named
A.EXAMPLE.COM to access a service in the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm, both realms must share a key for a principal named krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM, and both keys must have the same key version number associated with them.
To accomplish this, select a very strong password or passphrase, and create an entry for the principal in both realms using kadmin.
#??kadmin??-r??A.EXAMPLE.COMkadmin:??add_principal??krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COMEnter??password??for??principal??"krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM": Re-enter??password??for??principal??"krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM": Principal??"krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM"??created. quit #??kadmin??-r??B.EXAMPLE.COMkadmin:??add_principal??krbtgt/B.EXAM
PLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COMEnter??password??for??principal??"krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM": Re-enter??password??for??principal??"krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM": Principal??"krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM"??created. quit
Use the
get_principal command to verify that both entries have matching key version numbers (kvno values) and encryption types.
Dumping the Database Doesn't Do It
Security-conscious administrators may attempt to use the
add_principal command's -randkey option to assign a random key instead of a password, dump the new entry from the database of the first realm, and import it into the second. This will not work unless the master keys for the realm databases are identical, as the keys contained in a database dump are themselves encrypted using the master key.
Clients in the
A.EXAMPLE.COM realm are now able to authenticate to services in the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm. Put another way, the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm now trusts the A.EXAMPLE.COM realm, or phrased even more simply, B.EXAMPLE.COM now trusts A.EXAMPLE.COM.
This brings us to an important point: cross-realm trust is unidirectional by default. The KDC for the
B.EXAMPLE.COM realm may trust clients from the A.EXAMPLE.COM to authenticate to services in the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm, but the fact that it does has no effect on whether or not clients in the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm are trusted to authenticate to services in the A.EXAMPLE.COM realm. To establish trust in the other direction, both realms would need to share keys for the krbtgt/A.EXAMPLE.COM at B.EXAMPLE.COM service (take note of the reversed in order of the two realms compared to the example above).
If direct trust relationships were the only method for providing trust between realms, networks which contain multiple realms would be very difficult to set up. Luckily, cross-realm trust is transitive. If clients from
A.EXAMPLE.COM can authenticate to services in B.EXAMPLE.COM, and clients from B.EXAMPLE.COM can authenticate to services in C.EXAMPLE.COM, then clients in A.EXAMPLE.COM can also authenticate to services in C.EXAMPLE.COM, even if C.EXAMPLE.COM doesn't directly trust A.EXAMPLE.COM. This means that, on a network with multiple realms which all need to trust each other, making good choices about which trust relationships to set up can greatly reduce the amount of effort required.
Now you face the more conventional problems: the client's system must be configured so that it can properly deduce the realm to which a particular service belongs, and it must be able to determine how to obtain credentials for services in that realm.
First things first: the principal name for a service provided from a specific server system in a given realm typically looks like this:
service/server.example.com at EXAMPLE.COM
In this example, service is typically either the name of the protocol in use (other common values include ldap, imap, cvs, and HTTP) or host, server.example.com is the fully-qualified domain name of the system which runs the service, and
EXAMPLE.COM is the name of the realm.
To deduce the realm to which the service belongs, clients will most often consult DNS or the
domain_realm section of /etc/krb5.conf to map either a hostname (server.example.com) or a DNS domain name (.example.com) to the name of a realm (EXAMPLE.COM).
Having determined which to which realm a service belongs, a client then has to determine the set of realms which it needs to contact, and in which order it must contact them, to obtain credentials for use in authenticating to the service.
This can be done in one of two ways.
The default method, which requires no explicit configuration, is to give the realms names within a shared hierarchy. For an example, assume realms named
A.EXAMPLE.COM, B.EXAMPLE.COM, and EXAMPLE.COM. When a client in the A.EXAMPLE.COM realm attempts to authenticate to a service in B.EXAMPLE.COM, it will, by default, first attempt to get credentials for the EXAMPLE.COM realm, and then to use those credentials to obtain credentials for use in the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm.
The client in this scenario treats the realm name as one might treat a DNS name. It repeatedly strips off the components of its own realm's name to generate the names of realms which are "above" it in the hierarchy until it reaches a point which is also "above" the service's realm. At that point it begins prepending components of the service's realm name until it reaches the service's realm. Each realm which is involved in the process is another "hop".
For example, using credentials in
A.EXAMPLE.COM, authenticating to a service in B.EXAMPLE.COMA.EXAMPLE.COM ??? EXAMPLE.COM ??? B.EXAMPLE.COM
A.EXAMPLE.COMandEXAMPLE.COMshare a key forkrbtgt/EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COMEXAMPLE.COMandB.EXAMPLE.COMshare a key forkrbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at EXAMPLE.COM
Another example, using credentials in
SITE1.SALES.EXAMPLE.COM, authenticating to a service in EVERYWHERE.EXAMPLE.COMSITE1.SALES.EXAMPLE.COM ??? SALES.EXAMPLE.COM ??? EXAMPLE.COM ??? EVERYWHERE.EXAMPLE.COM
SITE1.SALES.EXAMPLE.COMandSALES.EXAMPLE.COMshare a key forkrbtgt/SALES.EXAMPLE.COM at SITE1.SALES.EXAMPLE.COMSALES.EXAMPLE.COMandEXAMPLE.COMshare a key forkrbtgt/EXAMPLE.COM at SALES.EXAMPLE.COMEXAMPLE.COMandEVERYWHERE.EXAMPLE.COMshare a key forkrbtgt/EVERYWHERE.EXAMPLE.COM at EXAMPLE.COM
Another example, this time using realm names whose names share no common suffix (
DEVEL.EXAMPLE.COM and PROD.EXAMPLE.ORG DEVEL.EXAMPLE.COM ??? EXAMPLE.COM ??? COM ??? ORG ??? EXAMPLE.ORG ??? PROD.EXAMPLE.ORG
DEVEL.EXAMPLE.COMandEXAMPLE.COMshare a key forkrbtgt/EXAMPLE.COM at DEVEL.EXAMPLE.COMEXAMPLE.COMandCOMshare a key forkrbtgt/COM at EXAMPLE.COMCOMandORGshare a key forkrbtgt/ORG at COMORGandEXAMPLE.ORGshare a key forkrbtgt/EXAMPLE.ORG at ORGEXAMPLE.ORGandPROD.EXAMPLE.ORGshare a key forkrbtgt/PROD.EXAMPLE.ORG at EXAMPLE.ORG
The more complicated, but also more flexible, method involves configuring the
capaths section of /etc/krb5.conf, so that clients which have credentials for one realm will be able to look up which realm is next in the chain which will eventually lead to the being able to authenticate to servers.
The format of the
capaths section is relatively straightforward: each entry in the section is named after a realm in which a client might exist. Inside of that subsection, the set of intermediate realms from which the client must obtain credentials is listed as values of the key which corresponds to the realm in which a service might reside. If there are no intermediate realms, the value "." is used.
Here's an example:
[capaths]
A.EXAMPLE.COM??=??{
B.EXAMPLE.COM??=??.
C.EXAMPLE.COM??=??B.EXAMPLE.COM
D.EXAMPLE.COM??=??B.EXAMPLE.COM
D.EXAMPLE.COM??=??C.EXAMPLE.COM
}
In this example, clients in the
A.EXAMPLE.COM realm can obtain cross-realm credentials for B.EXAMPLE.COM directly from the A.EXAMPLE.COM KDC.
If those clients wish to contact a service in the
C.EXAMPLE.COM realm, they will first need to obtain necessary credentials from the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm (this requires that krbtgt/B.EXAMPLE.COM at A.EXAMPLE.COM exist), and then use those credentials to obtain credentials for use in the C.EXAMPLE.COM realm (using krbtgt/C.EXAMPLE.COM at B.EXAMPLE.COM).
If those clients wish to contact a service in the
D.EXAMPLE.COM realm, they will first need to obtain necessary credentials from the B.EXAMPLE.COM realm, and then credentials from the C.EXAMPLE.COM realm, before finally obtaining credentials for use with the D.EXAMPLE.COM realm.
Note
Without a capath entry indicating otherwise, Kerberos assumes that cross-realm trust relationships form a hierarchy.
Clients in the
A.EXAMPLE.COM realm can obtain cross-realm credentials from B.EXAMPLE.COM realm directly. Without the "." indicating this, the client would instead attempt to use a hierarchical path, in this case:
A.EXAMPLE.COM???????EXAMPLE.COM???????B.EXAMPLE.COM
2.6.8.??Setting Up Secondary KDCs
For a number of reasons, you may choose to run multiple KDCs for a given realm. In this scenario, one KDC (the master KDC) keeps a writable copy of the realm database and runs
kadmind (it is also your realm's admin server), and one or more KDCs (slave KDCs) keep read-only copies of the database and run kpropd.
The master-slave propagation procedure entails the master KDC dumping its database to a temporary dump file and then transmitting that file to each of its slaves, which then overwrite their previously-received read-only copies of the database with the contents of the dump file.
To set up a slave KDC, first ensure that the master KDC's
krb5.conf and kdc.conf files are copied to the slave KDC.
Start
kadmin.local from a root shell on the master KDC and use its add_principal command to create a new entry for the master KDC's host service, and then use its ktadd command to simultaneously set a random key for the service and store the random key in the master's default keytab file. This key will be used by the kprop command to authenticate to the slave servers. You will only need to do this once, regardless of how many slave servers you install.
#kadmin.local -r EXAMPLE.COMAuthenticating as principal root/admin at EXAMPLE.COM with password.kadmin:add_principal -randkey host/masterkdc.example.comPrincipal "host/host/masterkdc.example.com at EXAMPLE.COM" created.kadmin:ktadd host/masterkdc.example.comEntry for principal host/masterkdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type Triple DES cbc mode with HMAC/sha1 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab. Entry for principal host/masterkdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type ArcFour with HMAC/md5 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab. Entry for principal host/masterkdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type DES with HMAC/sha1 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab. Entry for principal host/masterkdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type DES cbc mode with RSA-MD5 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab.kadmin:quit
Start
kadmin from a root shell on the slave KDC and use its add_principal command to create a new entry for the slave KDC's host service, and then use kadmin's ktadd command to simultaneously set a random key for the service and store the random key in the slave's default keytab file. This key is used by the kpropd service when authenticating clients.
#kadmin -p jimbo/admin at EXAMPLE.COM -r EXAMPLE.COMAuthenticating as principal jimbo/admin at EXAMPLE.COM with password.Password for jimbo/admin at EXAMPLE.COM:kadmin:add_principal -randkey host/slavekdc.example.comPrincipal "host/slavekdc.example.com at EXAMPLE.COM" created.kadmin:ktadd host/slavekdc.example.com at EXAMPLE.COMEntry for principal host/slavekdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type Triple DES cbc mode with HMAC/sha1 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab. Entry for principal host/slavekdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type ArcFour with HMAC/md5 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab. Entry for principal host/slavekdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type DES with HMAC/sha1 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab. Entry for principal host/slavekdc.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type DES cbc mode with RSA-MD5 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab.kadmin:quit
With its service key, the slave KDC could authenticate any client which would connect to it. Obviously, not all of them should be allowed to provide the slave's
kprop service with a new realm database. To restrict access, the kprop service on the slave KDC will only accept updates from clients whose principal names are listed in /var/kerberos/krb5kdc/kpropd.acl. Add the master KDC's host service's name to that file.
#??echo??host/masterkdc.example.com at EXAMPLE.COM??>??/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/kpropd.acl
Once the slave KDC has obtained a copy of the database, it will also need the master key which was used to encrypt it. If your KDC database's master key is stored in a stash file on the master KDC (typically named
/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/.k5.REALM, either copy it to the slave KDC using any available secure method, or create a dummy database and identical stash file on the slave KDC by running kdb5_util create -s (the dummy database will be overwritten by the first successful database propagation) and supplying the same password.
Ensure that the slave KDC's firewall allows the master KDC to contact it using TCP on port 754 (krb5_prop), and start the
kprop service. Then, double-check that the kadmin service is disabled.
Now perform a manual database propagation test by dumping the realm database, on the master KDC, to the default data file which the
kprop command will read (/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/slave_datatrans), and then use the kprop command to transmit its contents to the slave KDC.
#??/usr/kerberos/sbin/kdb5_util??dump??/var/kerberos/krb5kdc/slave_datatrans#??kprop??slavekdc.example.com
Using
kinit, verify that a client system whose krb5.conf lists only the slave KDC in its list of KDCs for your realm is now correctly able to obtain initial credentials from the slave KDC.
That done, simply create a script which dumps the realm database and runs the
kprop command to transmit the database to each slave KDC in turn, and configure the cron service to run the script periodically.
2.6.??Kerberos
System security and integrity within a network can be unwieldy. It can occupy the time of several administrators just to keep track of what services are being run on a network and the manner in which these services are used.
Further, authenticating users to network services can prove dangerous when the method used by the protocol is inherently insecure, as evidenced by the transfer of unencrypted passwords over a network using the traditional FTP and Telnet protocols.
Kerberos is a way to eliminate the need for protocols that allow unsafe methods of authentication, thereby enhancing overall network security.
2.6.1.??What is Kerberos?
Kerberos is a network authentication protocol created by MIT, and uses symmetric-key cryptography[14] to authenticate users to network services, which means passwords are never actually sent over the network.
Consequently, when users authenticate to network services using Kerberos, unauthorized users attempting to gather passwords by monitoring network traffic are effectively thwarted.
2.6.1.1.??Advantages of Kerberos
Most conventional network services use password-based authentication schemes. Such schemes require a user to authenticate to a given network server by supplying their username and password. Unfortunately, the transmission of authentication information for many services is unencrypted. For such a scheme to be secure, the network has to be inaccessible to outsiders, and all computers and users on the network must be trusted and trustworthy.
Even if this is the case, a network that is connected to the Internet can no longer be assumed to be secure. Any attacker who gains access to the network can use a simple packet analyzer, also known as a packet sniffer, to intercept usernames and passwords, compromising user accounts and the integrity of the entire security infrastructure.
The primary design goal of Kerberos is to eliminate the transmission of unencrypted passwords across the network. If used properly, Kerberos effectively eliminates the threat that packet sniffers would otherwise pose on a network.
2.6.1.2.??Disadvantages of Kerberos
Although Kerberos removes a common and severe security threat, it may be difficult to implement for a variety of reasons:
- Migrating user passwords from a standard UNIX password database, such as
/etc/passwdor/etc/shadow, to a Kerberos password database can be tedious, as there is no automated mechanism to perform this task. Refer to Question 2.23 in the online Kerberos FAQ: - Kerberos has only partial compatibility with the Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) system used by most Fedora servers. Refer to Section??2.6.4, ???Kerberos and PAM??? for more information about this issue.
- Kerberos assumes that each user is trusted but is using an untrusted host on an untrusted network. Its primary goal is to prevent unencrypted passwords from being transmitted across that network. However, if anyone other than the proper user has access to the one host that issues tickets used for authentication ??? called the key distribution center (KDC) ??? the entire Kerberos authentication system is at risk.
- For an application to use Kerberos, its source must be modified to make the appropriate calls into the Kerberos libraries. Applications modified in this way are considered to be Kerberos-aware, or kerberized. For some applications, this can be quite problematic due to the size of the application or its design. For other incompatible applications, changes must be made to the way in which the server and client communicate. Again, this may require extensive programming. Closed-source applications that do not have Kerberos support by default are often the most problematic.
- Kerberos is an all-or-nothing solution. If Kerberos is used on the network, any unencrypted passwords transferred to a non-Kerberos aware service is at risk. Thus, the network gains no benefit from the use of Kerberos. To secure a network with Kerberos, one must either use Kerberos-aware versions of all client/server applications that transmit passwords unencrypted, or not use any such client/server applications at all.
[14] A system where both the client and the server share a common key that is used to encrypt and decrypt network communication.
3.7.5.??Links of Interest
For additional information on LUKS or encrypting hard drives under Fedora please visit one of the following links:
3.7.3.??Step-by-Step Instructions
- enter runlevel 1:
telinit 1 - unmount your existing /home:
umount /home - if it fails use
fuserto find and kill processes hogging /home:fuser -mvk /home - verify /home is not mounted any longer:
cat /proc/mounts | grep home - Fill your partition with random data:
dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/VG00/LV_homeThis process takes many hours to complete.Important
The process, however, is imperative in order to have good protection against break-in attempts. Just let it run overnight. - initialize your partition:
cryptsetup --verbose --verify-passphrase luksFormat /dev/VG00/LV_home - open the newly encrypted device:
cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/VG00/LV_home home - check it's there:
ls -l /dev/mapper | grep home - create a filesystem:
mkfs.ext3 /dev/mapper/home - mount it:
mount /dev/mapper/home /home - check it's visible:
df -h | grep home - add the following to /etc/crypttab:
home /dev/VG00/LV_home none - edit your /etc/fstab, removing the old entry for /home and adding
/dev/mapper/home /home ext3 defaults 1 2 - verify your fstab entry:
mount /home - restore default SELinux security contexts:
/sbin/restorecon -v -R /home - reboot:
shutdown -r now - The entry in /etc/crypttab makes your computer ask your
lukspassphrase on boot - Login as root and restore your backup
3.7.4.??What you have just accomplished.
Congratulations, you now have an encrypted partition for all of your data to safely rest while the computer is off.
3.7.2.??Manually Encrypting Directories
Warning
Following this procedure will remove all data on the partition that you are encrypting. You WILL lose all your information! Make sure you backup your data to an external source before beginning this procedure!
If you are running a version of Fedora prior to Fedora 9 and want to encrypt a partition, or you want to encrypt a partition after the installation of the current version of Fedora, the following directions are for you. The below example demonstrates encrypting your /home partition but any partition can be used.
The following procedure will wipe all your existing data, so be sure to have a tested backup before you start. This also requires you to have a separate partition for /home (in my case that is /dev/VG00/LV_home). All the following must be done as root. Any of these steps failing means you must not continue until the step succeeded.
3.7.??LUKS Disk Encryption
Linux Unified Key Setup-on-disk-format (or LUKS) allows you to encrypt partitions on your Linux computer. This is particularly important when it comes to mobile computers and removable media. LUKS allows multiple user keys to decrypt a master key which is used for the bulk encryption of the partition.
3.7.1.??LUKS Implementation in Fedora
Fedora 9, and later, utilizes LUKS to perform file system encryption. By default, the option to encrypt the file system is unchecked during the installation. If you select the option to encrypt you hard drive, you will be prompted for a passphrase that will be asked every time you boot the computer. This passphrase "unlocks" the bulk encryption key that is used to decrypt your partition. If you choose to modify the default partition table you can choose which partitions you want to encrypt. This is set in the partition table settings
Fedora's default implementation of LUKS is AES 128 with a SHA256 hashing. Ciphers that are available are:
- AES - Advanced Encryption Standard - FIPS PUB 197
- Twofish (A 128-bit Block Cipher)
- Serpent
- cast5 - RFC 2144
- cast6 - RFC 2612
2.5.2.2.2.??Access Control
Option fields also allow administrators to explicitly allow or deny hosts in a single rule by adding the
allow or deny directive as the final option.
For example, the following two rules allow SSH connections from
client-1.example.com, but deny connections from client-2.example.com:
sshd : client-1.example.com : allow sshd : client-2.example.com : deny
By allowing access control on a per-rule basis, the option field allows administrators to consolidate all access rules into a single file: either
hosts.allow or hosts.deny. Some administrators consider this an easier way of organizing access rules.
2.5.2.2.4.??Expansions
Expansions, when used in conjunction with the
spawn and twist directives, provide information about the client, server, and processes involved.
The following is a list of supported expansions:
%a??? Returns the client's IP address.%A??? Returns the server's IP address.%c??? Returns a variety of client information, such as the username and hostname, or the username and IP address.%d??? Returns the daemon process name.%h??? Returns the client's hostname (or IP address, if the hostname is unavailable).%H??? Returns the server's hostname (or IP address, if the hostname is unavailable).%n??? Returns the client's hostname. If unavailable,unknownis printed. If the client's hostname and host address do not match,paranoidis printed.%N??? Returns the server's hostname. If unavailable,unknownis printed. If the server's hostname and host address do not match,paranoidis printed.%p??? Returns the daemon's process ID.%s???Returns various types of server information, such as the daemon process and the host or IP address of the server.%u??? Returns the client's username. If unavailable,unknownis printed.
The following sample rule uses an expansion in conjunction with the
spawn command to identify the client host in a customized log file.
When connections to the SSH daemon (
sshd) are attempted from a host in the example.com domain, execute the echo command to log the attempt, including the client hostname (by using the %h expansion), to a special file:
sshd : .example.com \ : spawn /bin/echo `/bin/date` access denied to %h>>/var/log/sshd.log \ : deny
Similarly, expansions can be used to personalize messages back to the client. In the following example, clients attempting to access FTP services from the
example.com domain are informed that they have been banned from the server:
vsftpd : .example.com \ : twist /bin/echo "421 %h has been banned from this server!"
For a full explanation of available expansions, as well as additional access control options, refer to section 5 of the man pages for
hosts_access (man 5 hosts_access) and the man page for hosts_options.
Refer to Section??2.5.5, ???Additional Resources??? for more information about TCP Wrappers.
2.5.2.2.3.??Shell Commands
Option fields allow access rules to launch shell commands through the following two directives:
spawn??? Launches a shell command as a child process. This directive can perform tasks like using/usr/sbin/safe_fingerto get more information about the requesting client or create special log files using theechocommand.In the following example, clients attempting to access Telnet services from theexample.comdomain are quietly logged to a special file:in.telnetd : .example.com \ : spawn /bin/echo `/bin/date` from %h>>/var/log/telnet.log \ : allow
twist??? Replaces the requested service with the specified command. This directive is often used to set up traps for intruders (also called "honey pots"). It can also be used to send messages to connecting clients. Thetwistdirective must occur at the end of the rule line.In the following example, clients attempting to access FTP services from theexample.comdomain are sent a message using theechocommand:vsftpd : .example.com \ : twist /bin/echo "421 This domain has been black-listed. Access denied!"
For more information about shell command options, refer to the
hosts_options man page.
2.4.3.2.??Control Flag
All PAM modules generate a success or failure result when called. Control flags tell PAM what do with the result. Modules can be stacked in a particular order, and the control flags determine how important the success or failure of a particular module is to the overall goal of authenticating the user to the service.
There are four predefined control flags:
required??? The module result must be successful for authentication to continue. If the test fails at this point, the user is not notified until the results of all module tests that reference that interface are complete.requisite??? The module result must be successful for authentication to continue. However, if a test fails at this point, the user is notified immediately with a message reflecting the first failedrequiredorrequisitemodule test.sufficient??? The module result is ignored if it fails. However, if the result of a module flaggedsufficientis successful and no previous modules flaggedrequiredhave failed, then no other results are required and the user is authenticated to the service.optional??? The module result is ignored. A module flagged asoptionalonly becomes necessary for successful authentication when no other modules reference the interface.
Important
The order in which
required modules are called is not critical. Only the sufficient and requisite control flags cause order to become important.
A newer control flag syntax that allows for more precise control is now available for PAM.
The
pam.d man page, and the PAM documentation, located in the /usr/share/doc/pam-<version-number>/ directory, where <version-number> is the version number for PAM on your system, describe this newer syntax in detail.
2.4.3.4.??Module Arguments
PAM uses arguments to pass information to a pluggable module during authentication for some modules.
For example, the
pam_userdb.so module uses information stored in a Berkeley DB file to authenticate the user. Berkeley DB is an open source database system embedded in many applications. The module takes a db argument so that Berkeley DB knows which database to use for the requested service.
The following is a typical
pam_userdb.so line in a PAM configuration. The <path-to-file> is the full path to the Berkeley DB database file:
auth required pam_userdb.so db=<path-to-file>
Invalid arguments are generally ignored and do not otherwise affect the success or failure of the PAM module. Some modules, however, may fail on invalid arguments. Most modules report errors to the
/var/log/secure file.
2.4.3.3.??Module Name
The module name provides PAM with the name of the pluggable module containing the specified module interface. In older versions of Fedora, the full path to the module was provided in the PAM configuration file. However, since the advent of multilib systems, which store 64-bit PAM modules in the
/lib64/security/ directory, the directory name is omitted because the application is linked to the appropriate version of libpam, which can locate the correct version of the module.
2.4.6.2.??Common pam_timestamp Directives
The
pam_timestamp.so module accepts several directives. The following are the two most commonly used options:
timestamp_timeout??? Specifies the period (in seconds) for which the timestamp file is valid. The default value is 300 (five minutes).timestampdir??? Specifies the directory in which the timestamp file is stored. The default value is/var/run/sudo/.
Refer to Section??2.8.9.1, ???Installed Firewall Documentation??? for more information about controlling the
pam_timestamp.so module.
2.4.7.2.??Application Access
The console user also has access to certain programs configured for use in the
/etc/security/console.apps/ directory.
This directory contains configuration files which enable the console user to run certain applications in
/sbin and /usr/sbin.
These configuration files have the same name as the applications that they set up.
One notable group of applications that the console user has access to are three programs that shut down or reboot the system:
/sbin/halt/sbin/reboot/sbin/poweroff
Because these are PAM-aware applications, they call the
pam_console.so module as a requirement for use.
Refer to Section??2.8.9.1, ???Installed Firewall Documentation??? for more information.
2.4.8.??Additional Resources
The following resources further explain methods to use and configure PAM. In addition to these resources, read the PAM configuration files on the system to better understand how they are structured.
2.4.8.1.??Installed PAM Documentation
- PAM-related man pages ??? Several man pages exist for the various applications and configuration files involved with PAM. The following is a list of some of the more important man pages.
- Configuration Files
pam??? Good introductory information on PAM, including the structure and purpose of the PAM configuration files.Note that this man page discusses both/etc/pam.confand individual configuration files in the/etc/pam.d/directory. By default, Fedora uses the individual configuration files in the/etc/pam.d/directory, ignoring/etc/pam.confeven if it exists.pam_console??? Describes the purpose of thepam_console.somodule. It also describes the appropriate syntax for an entry within a PAM configuration file.console.apps??? Describes the format and options available in the/etc/security/console.appsconfiguration file, which defines which applications are accessible by the console user assigned by PAM.console.perms??? Describes the format and options available in the/etc/security/console.permsconfiguration file, which specifies the console user permissions assigned by PAM.pam_timestamp??? Describes thepam_timestamp.somodule.
/usr/share/doc/pam-??? Contains a System Administrators' Guide, a Module Writers' Manual, and the Application Developers' Manual, as well as a copy of the PAM standard, DCE-RFC 86.0, where<version-number><version-number>is the version number of PAM./usr/share/doc/pam-??? Contains information about the<version-number>/txts/README.pam_timestamppam_timestamp.soPAM module, where<version-number>is the version number of PAM.
2.4.5.??Creating PAM Modules
You can create or add new PAM modules at any time for use by PAM-aware applications.
For example, a developer might create a one-time-password creation method and write a PAM module to support it. PAM-aware programs can immediately use the new module and password method without being recompiled or otherwise modified.
This allows developers and system administrators to mix-and-match, as well as test, authentication methods for different programs without recompiling them.
Documentation on writing modules is included in the
/usr/share/doc/pam-<version-number>/ directory, where <version-number> is the version number for PAM on your system.
- Prev2.4.4.??Sample PAM Configuration Files
- Up
- Home
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2.4.3.??PAM Configuration File Format
Each PAM configuration file contains a group of directives formatted as follows:
<module interface><control flag><module name><module arguments>
Each of these elements is explained in the following sections.
2.4.3.1.??Module Interface
Four types of PAM module interface are currently available. Each of these corresponds to a different aspect of the authorization process:
auth??? This module interface authenticates use. For example, it requests and verifies the validity of a password. Modules with this interface can also set credentials, such as group memberships or Kerberos tickets.account??? This module interface verifies that access is allowed. For example, it may check if a user account has expired or if a user is allowed to log in at a particular time of day.password??? This module interface is used for changing user passwords.session??? This module interface configures and manages user sessions. Modules with this interface can also perform additional tasks that are needed to allow access, like mounting a user's home directory and making the user's mailbox available.
Note
An individual module can provide any or all module interfaces. For instance,
pam_unix.so provides all four module interfaces.
In a PAM configuration file, the module interface is the first field defined. For example, a typical line in a configuration may look like this:
auth required pam_unix.so
This instructs PAM to use the
pam_unix.so module's auth interface.
2.4.3.1.1.??Stacking Module Interfaces
Module interface directives can be stacked, or placed upon one another, so that multiple modules are used together for one purpose. If a module's control flag uses the "sufficient" or "requisite" value (refer to Section??2.4.3.2, ???Control Flag??? for more information on these flags), then the order in which the modules are listed is important to the authentication process.
Stacking makes it easy for an administrator to require specific conditions to exist before allowing the user to authenticate. For example, the
reboot command normally uses several stacked modules, as seen in its PAM configuration file:
[root at MyServer ~]# cat /etc/pam.d/reboot #%PAM-1.0 auth sufficient pam_rootok.so auth required pam_console.so #auth include system-auth account required pam_permit.so
- The first line is a comment and is not processed.
auth sufficient pam_rootok.so??? This line uses thepam_rootok.somodule to check whether the current user is root, by verifying that their UID is 0. If this test succeeds, no other modules are consulted and the command is executed. If this test fails, the next module is consulted.auth required pam_console.so??? This line uses thepam_console.somodule to attempt to authenticate the user. If this user is already logged in at the console,pam_console.sochecks whether there is a file in the/etc/security/console.apps/directory with the same name as the service name (reboot). If such a file exists, authentication succeeds and control is passed to the next module.#auth include system-auth??? This line is commented and is not processed.account required pam_permit.so??? This line uses thepam_permit.somodule to allow the root user or anyone logged in at the console to reboot the system.
2.4.2.??PAM Configuration Files
The
/etc/pam.d/ directory contains the PAM configuration files for each PAM-aware application. In earlier versions of PAM, the /etc/pam.conf file was used, but this file is now deprecated and is only used if the /etc/pam.d/ directory does not exist.
2.4.2.1.??PAM Service Files
Each PAM-aware application or service has a file in the
/etc/pam.d/ directory. Each file in this directory has the same name as the service to which it controls access.
The PAM-aware program is responsible for defining its service name and installing its own PAM configuration file in the
/etc/pam.d/ directory. For example, the login program defines its service name as login and installs the /etc/pam.d/login PAM configuration file.
2.4.6.??PAM and Administrative Credential Caching
A number of graphical administrative tools in Fedora provide users with elevated privileges for up to five minutes using the
pam_timestamp.so module. It is important to understand how this mechanism works, because a user who walks away from a terminal while pam_timestamp.so is in effect leaves the machine open to manipulation by anyone with physical access to the console.
In the PAM timestamp scheme, the graphical administrative application prompts the user for the root password when it is launched. When the user has been authenticated, the
pam_timestamp.so module creates a timestamp file. By default, this is created in the /var/run/sudo/ directory. If the timestamp file already exists, graphical administrative programs do not prompt for a password. Instead, the pam_timestamp.so module freshens the timestamp file, reserving an extra five minutes of unchallenged administrative access for the user.
You can verify the actual state of the timestamp file by inspecting the
/var/run/sudo/<user> file. For the desktop, the relevant file is unknown:root. If it is present and its timestamp is less than five minutes old, the credentials are valid.
The existence of the timestamp file is indicated by an authentication icon, which appears in the notification area of the panel.
Illustration of the authentication icon.
Figure??2.7.??The Authentication Icon
2.4.6.1.??Removing the Timestamp File
Before abandoning a console where a PAM timestamp is active, it is recommended that the timestamp file be destroyed. To do this from a graphical environment, click the authentication icon on the panel. This causes a dialog box to appear. Click the button to destroy the active timestamp file.
Illustration of the authentication dismissal dialog box.
Figure??2.8.??Dismiss Authentication Dialog
You should be aware of the following with respect to the PAM timestamp file:
- If logged in to the system remotely using
ssh, use the/sbin/pam_timestamp_check -k rootcommand to destroy the timestamp file. - You need to run the
/sbin/pam_timestamp_check -k rootcommand from the same terminal window from which you launched the privileged application. - You must be logged in as the user who originally invoked the
pam_timestamp.somodule in order to use the/sbin/pam_timestamp_check -kcommand. Do not log in as root to use this command. - If you want to kill the credentials on the desktop (without using the action on the icon), use the following command:
/sbin/pam_timestamp_check -k root </dev/null >/dev/null 2>/dev/null
Failure to use this command will only remove the credentials (if any) from the pty where you run the command.
Refer to the
pam_timestamp_check man page for more information about destroying the timestamp file using pam_timestamp_check.
2.4.7.??PAM and Device Ownership
In Fedora, the first user who logs in at the physical console of the machine can manipulate certain devices and perform certain tasks normally reserved for the root user. This is controlled by a PAM module called
pam_console.so.
2.4.7.1.??Device Ownership
When a user logs in to a Fedora system, the
pam_console.so module is called by login or the graphical login programs, gdm, kdm, and xdm. If this user is the first user to log in at the physical console ??? referred to as the console user ??? the module grants the user ownership of a variety of devices normally owned by root. The console user owns these devices until the last local session for that user ends. After this user has logged out, ownership of the devices reverts back to the root user.
The devices affected include, but are not limited to, sound cards, diskette drives, and CD-ROM drives.
This facility allows a local user to manipulate these devices without obtaining root access, thus simplifying common tasks for the console user.
You can modify the list of devices controlled by
pam_console.so by editing the following files:
/etc/security/console.perms/etc/security/console.perms.d/50-default.perms
You can change the permissions of different devices than those listed in the above files, or override the specified defaults. Rather than modify the
50-default.perms file, you should create a new file (for example, xx-name.perms51-default.perms). This will override the defaults in the 50-default.perms file.
Warning
If the gdm, kdm, or xdm display manager configuration file has been altered to allow remote users to log in and the host is configured to run at runlevel 5, it is advisable to change the
<console> and <xconsole> directives in the /etc/security/console.perms to the following values:
<console>=tty[0-9][0-9]* vc/[0-9][0-9]* :0\.[0-9] :0 <xconsole>=:0\.[0-9] :0
This prevents remote users from gaining access to devices and restricted applications on the machine.
If the gdm, kdm, or xdm display manager configuration file has been altered to allow remote users to log in and the host is configured to run at any multiple user runlevel other than 5, it is advisable to remove the
<xconsole> directive entirely and change the <console> directive to the following value:
<console>=tty[0-9][0-9]* vc/[0-9][0-9]*
2.4.4.??Sample PAM Configuration Files
The following is a sample PAM application configuration file:
#%PAM-1.0 auth required pam_securetty.so auth required pam_unix.so nullok auth required pam_nologin.so account required pam_unix.so password required pam_cracklib.so retry=3 password required pam_unix.so shadow nullok use_authtok session required pam_unix.so
- The first line is a comment, indicated by the hash mark (
#) at the beginning of the line. - Lines two through four stack three modules for login authentication.
auth required pam_securetty.so??? This module ensures that if the user is trying to log in as root, the tty on which the user is logging in is listed in the/etc/securettyfile, if that file exists.If the tty is not listed in the file, any attempt to log in as root fails with aLogin incorrectmessage.auth required pam_unix.so nullok??? This module prompts the user for a password and then checks the password using the information stored in/etc/passwdand, if it exists,/etc/shadow.- The argument
nullokinstructs thepam_unix.somodule to allow a blank password.
auth required pam_nologin.so??? This is the final authentication step. It checks whether the/etc/nologinfile exists. If it exists and the user is not root, authentication fails.Note
In this example, all threeauthmodules are checked, even if the firstauthmodule fails. This prevents the user from knowing at what stage their authentication failed. Such knowledge in the hands of an attacker could allow them to more easily deduce how to crack the system.account required pam_unix.so??? This module performs any necessary account verification. For example, if shadow passwords have been enabled, the account interface of thepam_unix.somodule checks to see if the account has expired or if the user has not changed the password within the allowed grace period.password required pam_cracklib.so retry=3??? If a password has expired, the password component of thepam_cracklib.somodule prompts for a new password. It then tests the newly created password to see whether it can easily be determined by a dictionary-based password cracking program.- The argument
retry=3specifies that if the test fails the first time, the user has two more chances to create a strong password.
password required pam_unix.so shadow nullok use_authtok??? This line specifies that if the program changes the user's password, it should use thepasswordinterface of thepam_unix.somodule to do so.- The argument
shadowinstructs the module to create shadow passwords when updating a user's password. - The argument
nullokinstructs the module to allow the user to change their password from a blank password, otherwise a null password is treated as an account lock. - The final argument on this line,
use_authtok, provides a good example of the importance of order when stacking PAM modules. This argument instructs the module not to prompt the user for a new password. Instead, it accepts any password that was recorded by a previous password module. In this way, all new passwords must pass thepam_cracklib.sotest for secure passwords before being accepted.
session required pam_unix.so??? The final line instructs the session interface of thepam_unix.somodule to manage the session. This module logs the user name and the service type to/var/log/secureat the beginning and end of each session. This module can be supplemented by stacking it with other session modules for additional functionality.
2.4.??Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)
Programs that grant users access to a system use authentication to verify each other's identity (that is, to establish that a user is who they say they are).
Historically, each program had its own way of authenticating users. In Fedora, many programs are configured to use a centralized authentication mechanism called Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM).
PAM uses a pluggable, modular architecture, which affords the system administrator a great deal of flexibility in setting authentication policies for the system.
In most situations, the default PAM configuration file for a PAM-aware application is sufficient. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to edit a PAM configuration file. Because misconfiguration of PAM can compromise system security, it is important to understand the structure of these files before making any modifications. Refer to Section??2.4.3, ???PAM Configuration File Format??? for more information.
2.4.1.??Advantages of PAM
PAM offers the following advantages:
- a common authentication scheme that can be used with a wide variety of applications.
- significant flexibility and control over authentication for both system administrators and application developers.
- a single, fully-documented library which allows developers to write programs without having to create their own authentication schemes.
5.2.??Utilize LUKS Partition Encryption
Since Fedora 9, implementation of Linux Unified Key Setup-on-disk-format(LUKS) encryption has become a lot easier. During the installation process an option to encrypt your partitions will be presented to the user. The user must supply a passphrase that will be the key to unlock the bulk encryption key that will be used to secure the partition's data.
Fedora 8, however, does not have LUKS support built-in; however it is easily implemented. Step-by-step procedures are available that allow the user to implement partition encryption on their Fedora 8 installation.
2.2.6.2.??Anonymous Access
The presence of the
/var/ftp/ directory activates the anonymous account.
The easiest way to create this directory is to install the
vsftpd package. This package establishes a directory tree for anonymous users and configures the permissions on directories to read-only for anonymous users.
By default the anonymous user cannot write to any directories.
Warning
If enabling anonymous access to an FTP server, be aware of where sensitive data is stored.
2.2.6.2.1.??Anonymous Upload
To allow anonymous users to upload files, it is recommended that a write-only directory be created within
/var/ftp/pub/.
To do this, type the following command:
mkdir /var/ftp/pub/upload
Next, change the permissions so that anonymous users cannot view the contents of the directory:
chmod 730 /var/ftp/pub/upload
A long format listing of the directory should look like this:
drwx-wx--- 2 root ftp 4096 Feb 13 20:05 upload
Warning
Administrators who allow anonymous users to read and write in directories often find that their servers become a repository of stolen software.
Additionally, under
vsftpd, add the following line to the /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf file:
anon_upload_enable=YES
2.2.6.4.??Use TCP Wrappers To Control Access
Use TCP Wrappers to control access to either FTP daemon as outlined in Section??2.2.1.1, ???Enhancing Security With TCP Wrappers???.
2.2.6.3.??User Accounts
Because FTP transmits unencrypted usernames and passwords over insecure networks for authentication, it is a good idea to deny system users access to the server from their user accounts.
To disable all user accounts in
vsftpd, add the following directive to /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf:
local_enable=NO
2.2.6.3.1.??Restricting User Accounts
To disable FTP access for specific accounts or specific groups of accounts, such as the root user and those with
sudo privileges, the easiest way is to use a PAM list file as described in Section??2.1.4.2.4, ???Disabling Root Using PAM???. The PAM configuration file for vsftpd is /etc/pam.d/vsftpd.
It is also possible to disable user accounts within each service directly.
To disable specific user accounts in
vsftpd, add the username to /etc/vsftpd.ftpusers
2.2.4.2.??Beware of Syntax Errors
The NFS server determines which file systems to export and which hosts to export these directories to by consulting the
/etc/exports file. Be careful not to add extraneous spaces when editing this file.
For instance, the following line in the
/etc/exports file shares the directory /tmp/nfs/ to the host bob.example.com with read/write permissions.
/tmp/nfs/ bob.example.com(rw)
The following line in the
/etc/exports file, on the other hand, shares the same directory to the host bob.example.com with read-only permissions and shares it to the world with read/write permissions due to a single space character after the hostname.
/tmp/nfs/ bob.example.com (rw)
It is good practice to check any configured NFS shares by using the
showmount command to verify what is being shared:
showmount -e <hostname>
2.2.4.3.??Do Not Use the no_root_squash Option
By default, NFS shares change the root user to the
nfsnobody user, an unprivileged user account. This changes the owner of all root-created files to nfsnobody, which prevents uploading of programs with the setuid bit set.
If
no_root_squash is used, remote root users are able to change any file on the shared file system and leave applications infected by trojans for other users to inadvertently execute.
2.2.4.4.??NFS Firewall Configuration
The ports used for NFS are assigned dynamically by rpcbind, which can cause problems when creating firewall rules. To simplify this process, use the /etc/sysconfig/nfs file to specify which ports are to be used:
MOUNTD_PORT??? TCP and UDP port for mountd (rpc.mountd)STATD_PORT??? TCP and UDP port for status (rpc.statd)LOCKD_TCPPORT??? TCP port for nlockmgr (rpc.lockd)LOCKD_UDPPORT??? UDP port nlockmgr (rpc.lockd)
Port numbers specified must not be used by any other service. Configure your firewall to allow the port numbers specified, as well as TCP and UDP port 2049 (NFS).
Run the
rpcinfo -p command on the NFS server to see which ports and RPC programs are being used.
2.2.3.4.??Assign Static Ports and Use iptables Rules
All of the servers related to NIS can be assigned specific ports except for
rpc.yppasswdd ??? the daemon that allows users to change their login passwords. Assigning ports to the other two NIS server daemons, rpc.ypxfrd and ypserv, allows for the creation of firewall rules to further protect the NIS server daemons from intruders.
To do this, add the following lines to
/etc/sysconfig/network:
YPSERV_ARGS="-p 834" YPXFRD_ARGS="-p 835"
The following iptables rules can then be used to enforce which network the server listens to for these ports:
iptables -A INPUT -p ALL -s! 192.168.0.0/24 --dport 834 -j DROP iptables -A INPUT -p ALL -s! 192.168.0.0/24 --dport 835 -j DROP
This means that the server only allows connections to ports 834 and 835 if the requests come from the 192.168.0.0/24 network, regardless of the protocol.
Note
Refer to Section??2.8, ???Firewalls??? for more information about implementing firewalls with iptables commands.
2.2.3.3.??Edit the /var/yp/securenets File
If the
/var/yp/securenets file is blank or does not exist (as is the case after a default installation), NIS listens to all networks. One of the first things to do is to put netmask/network pairs in the file so that ypserv only responds to requests from the appropriate network.
Below is a sample entry from a
/var/yp/securenets file:
255.255.255.0 192.168.0.0
Warning
Never start an NIS server for the first time without creating the
/var/yp/securenets file.
This technique does not provide protection from an IP spoofing attack, but it does at least place limits on what networks the NIS server services.
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2.2.3.5.??Use Kerberos Authentication
One of the issues to consider when NIS is used for authentication is that whenever a user logs into a machine, a password hash from the
/etc/shadow map is sent over the network. If an intruder gains access to an NIS domain and sniffs network traffic, they can collect usernames and password hashes. With enough time, a password cracking program can guess weak passwords, and an attacker can gain access to a valid account on the network.
Since Kerberos uses secret-key cryptography, no password hashes are ever sent over the network, making the system far more secure. Refer to Section??2.6, ???Kerberos??? for more information about Kerberos.
2.2.3.2.??Use a Password-like NIS Domain Name and Hostname
Any machine within an NIS domain can use commands to extract information from the server without authentication, as long as the user knows the NIS server's DNS hostname and NIS domain name.
For instance, if someone either connects a laptop computer into the network or breaks into the network from outside (and manages to spoof an internal IP address), the following command reveals the
/etc/passwd map:
ypcat -d<NIS_domain>-h<DNS_hostname>passwd
If this attacker is a root user, they can obtain the
/etc/shadow file by typing the following command:
ypcat -d<NIS_domain>-h<DNS_hostname>shadow
Note
If Kerberos is used, the
/etc/shadow file is not stored within an NIS map.
To make access to NIS maps harder for an attacker, create a random string for the DNS hostname, such as
o7hfawtgmhwg.domain.com. Similarly, create a different randomized NIS domain name. This makes it much more difficult for an attacker to access the NIS server.
2.2.2.2.??Protect portmap With iptables
To further restrict access to the
portmap service, it is a good idea to add iptables rules to the server and restrict access to specific networks.
Below are two example iptables commands. The first allows TCP connections to the port 111 (used by the
portmap service) from the 192.168.0.0/24 network. The second allows TCP connections to the same port from the localhost. This is necessary for the sgi_fam service used by Nautilus. All other packets are dropped.
iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -s! 192.168.0.0/24 --dport 111 -j DROP iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -s 127.0.0.1 --dport 111 -j ACCEPT
To similarly limit UDP traffic, use the following command.
iptables -A INPUT -p udp -s! 192.168.0.0/24 --dport 111 -j DROP
Note
Refer to Section??2.8, ???Firewalls??? for more information about implementing firewalls with iptables commands.
2.2.7.3.??Mail-only Users
To help prevent local user exploits on the Sendmail server, it is best for mail users to only access the Sendmail server using an email program. Shell accounts on the mail server should not be allowed and all user shells in the
/etc/passwd file should be set to /sbin/nologin (with the possible exception of the root user).
2.2.7.2.??NFS and Sendmail
Never put the mail spool directory,
/var/spool/mail/, on an NFS shared volume.
Because NFSv2 and NFSv3 do not maintain control over user and group IDs, two or more users can have the same UID, and receive and read each other's mail.
Note
With NFSv4 using Kerberos, this is not the case, since the
SECRPC_GSS kernel module does not utilize UID-based authentication. However, it is still considered good practice not to put the mail spool directory on NFS shared volumes.
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/p>
1.5.??Security Updates
As security vulnerabilities are discovered, the affected software must be updated in order to limit any potential security risks. If the software is part of a package within a Fedora distribution that is currently supported, Fedora is committed to releasing updated packages that fix the vulnerability as soon as is possible. Often, announcements about a given security exploit are accompanied with a patch (or source code that fixes the problem). This patch is then applied to the Fedora package and tested and released as an errata update. However, if an announcement does not include a patch, a developer first works with the maintainer of the software to fix the problem. Once the problem is fixed, the package is tested and released as an errata update.
If an errata update is released for software used on your system, it is highly recommended that you update the affected packages as soon as possible to minimize the amount of time the system is potentially vulnerable.
1.5.1.??Updating Packages
When updating software on a system, it is important to download the update from a trusted source. An attacker can easily rebuild a package with the same version number as the one that is supposed to fix the problem but with a different security exploit and release it on the Internet. If this happens, using security measures such as verifying files against the original RPM does not detect the exploit. Thus, it is very important to only download RPMs from trusted sources, such as from Fedora and to check the signature of the package to verify its integrity.
Note
Fedora includes a convenient panel icon that displays visible alerts when there is an update for a Fedora system.
2.2.6.??Securing FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an older TCP protocol designed to transfer files over a network. Because all transactions with the server, including user authentication, are unencrypted, it is considered an insecure protocol and should be carefully configured.
Fedora provides three FTP servers.
gssftpd??? A Kerberos-awarexinetd-based FTP daemon that does not transmit authentication information over the network.- Red Hat Content Accelerator (
tux) ??? A kernel-space Web server with FTP capabilities. vsftpd??? A standalone, security oriented implementation of the FTP service.
The following security guidelines are for setting up the
vsftpd FTP service.
2.2.6.1.??FTP Greeting Banner
Before submitting a username and password, all users are presented with a greeting banner. By default, this banner includes version information useful to crackers trying to identify weaknesses in a system.
To change the greeting banner for
vsftpd, add the following directive to the /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf file:
ftpd_banner=<insert_greeting_here>
Replace
<insert_greeting_here> in the above directive with the text of the greeting message.
For mutli-line banners, it is best to use a banner file. To simplify management of multiple banners, place all banners in a new directory called
/etc/banners/. The banner file for FTP connections in this example is /etc/banners/ftp.msg. Below is an example of what such a file may look like:
######### # Hello, all activity on ftp.example.com is logged. #########
Note
It is not necessary to begin each line of the file with
220 as specified in Section??2.2.1.1.1, ???TCP Wrappers and Connection Banners???.
To reference this greeting banner file for
vsftpd, add the following directive to the /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf file:
banner_file=/etc/banners/ftp.msg
It also is possible to send additional banners to incoming connections using TCP Wrappers as described in Section??2.2.1.1.1, ???TCP Wrappers and Connection Banners???.
2.2.4.??Securing NFS
Important
The version of NFS included in Fedora, NFSv4, no longer requires the
portmap service as outlined in Section??2.2.2, ???Securing Portmap???. NFS traffic now utilizes TCP in all versions, rather than UDP, and requires it when using NFSv4. NFSv4 now includes Kerberos user and group authentication, as part of the RPCSEC_GSS kernel module. Information on portmap is still included, since Fedora supports NFSv2 and NFSv3, both of which utilize portmap.
2.2.4.1.??Carefully Plan the Network
Now that NFSv4 has the ability to pass all information encrypted using Kerberos over a network, it is important that the service be configured correctly if it is behind a firewall or on a segmented network. NFSv2 and NFSv3 still pass data insecurely, and this should be taken into consideration. Careful network design in all of these regards can help prevent security breaches.
2.2.3.??Securing NIS
The Network Information Service (NIS) is an RPC service, called
ypserv, which is used in conjunction with portmap and other related services to distribute maps of usernames, passwords, and other sensitive information to any computer claiming to be within its domain.
An NIS server is comprised of several applications. They include the following:
/usr/sbin/rpc.yppasswdd??? Also called theyppasswddservice, this daemon allows users to change their NIS passwords./usr/sbin/rpc.ypxfrd??? Also called theypxfrdservice, this daemon is responsible for NIS map transfers over the network./usr/sbin/yppush??? This application propagates changed NIS databases to multiple NIS servers./usr/sbin/ypserv??? This is the NIS server daemon.
NIS is somewhat insecure by today's standards. It has no host authentication mechanisms and transmits all of its information over the network unencrypted, including password hashes. As a result, extreme care must be taken when setting up a network that uses NIS. This is further complicated by the fact that the default configuration of NIS is inherently insecure.
It is recommended that anyone planning to implement an NIS server first secure the
portmap service as outlined in Section??2.2.2, ???Securing Portmap???, then address the following issues, such as network planning.
2.2.3.1.??Carefully Plan the Network
Because NIS transmits sensitive information unencrypted over the network, it is important the service be run behind a firewall and on a segmented and secure network. Whenever NIS information is transmitted over an insecure network, it risks being intercepted. Careful network design can help prevent severe security breaches.
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2.2.2.??Securing Portmap
The
portmap service is a dynamic port assignment daemon for RPC services such as NIS and NFS. It has weak authentication mechanisms and has the ability to assign a wide range of ports for the services it controls. For these reasons, it is difficult to secure.
Note
Securing
portmap only affects NFSv2 and NFSv3 implementations, since NFSv4 no longer requires it. If you plan to implement an NFSv2 or NFSv3 server, then portmap is required, and the following section applies.
If running RPC services, follow these basic rules.
2.2.2.1.??Protect portmap With TCP Wrappers
It is important to use TCP Wrappers to limit which networks or hosts have access to the
portmap service since it has no built-in form of authentication.
Further, use only IP addresses when limiting access to the service. Avoid using hostnames, as they can be forged by DNS poisoning and other methods.
2.2.7.??Securing Sendmail
Sendmail is a Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) that uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to deliver electronic messages between other MTAs and to email clients or delivery agents. Although many MTAs are capable of encrypting traffic between one another, most do not, so sending email over any public networks is considered an inherently insecure form of communication.
It is recommended that anyone planning to implement a Sendmail server address the following issues.
2.2.7.1.??Limiting a Denial of Service Attack
Because of the nature of email, a determined attacker can flood the server with mail fairly easily and cause a denial of service. By setting limits to the following directives in
/etc/mail/sendmail.mc, the effectiveness of such attacks is limited.
confCONNECTION_RATE_THROTTLE??? The number of connections the server can receive per second. By default, Sendmail does not limit the number of connections. If a limit is set and reached, further connections are delayed.confMAX_DAEMON_CHILDREN??? The maximum number of child processes that can be spawned by the server. By default, Sendmail does not assign a limit to the number of child processes. If a limit is set and reached, further connections are delayed.confMIN_FREE_BLOCKS??? The minimum number of free blocks which must be available for the server to accept mail. The default is 100 blocks.confMAX_HEADERS_LENGTH??? The maximum acceptable size (in bytes) for a message header.confMAX_MESSAGE_SIZE??? The maximum acceptable size (in bytes) for a single message.
2.2.5.??Securing the Apache HTTP Server
The Apache HTTP Server is one of the most stable and secure services that ships with Fedora. A large number of options and techniques are available to secure the Apache HTTP Server ??? too numerous to delve into deeply here. The following section briefly explains good practices when running the Apache HTTP Server.
Always verify that any scripts running on the system work as intended before putting them into production. Also, ensure that only the root user has write permissions to any directory containing scripts or CGIs. To do this, run the following commands as the root user:
chown root
<directory_name>chmod 755
<directory_name>
System administrators should be careful when using the following configuration options (configured in
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf):
FollowSymLinks- This directive is enabled by default, so be sure to use caution when creating symbolic links to the document root of the Web server. For instance, it is a bad idea to provide a symbolic link to
/. Indexes- This directive is enabled by default, but may not be desirable. To prevent visitors from browsing files on the server, remove this directive.
UserDir- The
UserDirdirective is disabled by default because it can confirm the presence of a user account on the system. To enable user directory browsing on the server, use the following directives:UserDir enabled UserDir disabled root
These directives activate user directory browsing for all user directories other than/root/. To add users to the list of disabled accounts, add a space-delimited list of users on theUserDir disabledline.
Important
Do not remove the
IncludesNoExec directive. By default, the Server-Side Includes (SSI) module cannot execute commands. It is recommended that you do not change this setting unless absolutely necessary, as it could, potentially, enable an attacker to execute commands on the system.
2.2.8.??Verifying Which Ports Are Listening
After configuring network services, it is important to pay attention to which ports are actually listening on the system's network interfaces. Any open ports can be evidence of an intrusion.
There are two basic approaches for listing the ports that are listening on the network. The less reliable approach is to query the network stack using commands such as
netstat -an or lsof -i. This method is less reliable since these programs do not connect to the machine from the network, but rather check to see what is running on the system. For this reason, these applications are frequent targets for replacement by attackers. Crackers attempt to cover their tracks if they open unauthorized network ports by replacing netstat and lsof with their own, modified versions.
A more reliable way to check which ports are listening on the network is to use a port scanner such as
nmap.
The following command issued from the console determines which ports are listening for TCP connections from the network:
nmap -sT -O localhost
The output of this command appears as follows:
Starting Nmap 4.68 ( http://nmap.org ) at 2009-03-06 12:08 EST Interesting ports on localhost.localdomain (127.0.0.1): Not shown: 1711 closed ports PORT STATE SERVICE 22/tcp open ssh 25/tcp open smtp 111/tcp open rpcbind 113/tcp open auth 631/tcp open ipp 834/tcp open unknown 2601/tcp open zebra 32774/tcp open sometimes-rpc11 Device type: general purpose Running: Linux 2.6.X OS details: Linux 2.6.17 - 2.6.24 Uptime: 4.122 days (since Mon Mar 2 09:12:31 2009) Network Distance: 0 hops OS detection performed. Please report any incorrect results at http://nmap.org/submit/ . Nmap done: 1 IP address (1 host up) scanned in 1.420 seconds
This output shows the system is running
portmap due to the presence of the sunrpc service. However, there is also a mystery service on port 834. To check if the port is associated with the official list of known services, type:
cat /etc/services | grep 834
This command returns no output. This indicates that while the port is in the reserved range (meaning 0 through 1023) and requires root access to open, it is not associated with a known service.
Next, check for information about the port using
netstat or lsof. To check for port 834 using netstat, use the following command:
netstat -anp | grep 834
The command returns the following output:
tcp 0 0 0.0.0.0:834 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN 653/ypbind
The presence of the open port in
netstat is reassuring because a cracker opening a port surreptitiously on a hacked system is not likely to allow it to be revealed through this command. Also, the [p] option reveals the process ID (PID) of the service that opened the port. In this case, the open port belongs to ypbind (NIS), which is an RPC service handled in conjunction with the portmap service.
The
lsof command reveals similar information to netstat since it is also capable of linking open ports to services:
lsof -i | grep 834
The relevant portion of the output from this command follows:
ypbind 653 0 7u IPv4 1319 TCP *:834 (LISTEN) ypbind 655 0 7u IPv4 1319 TCP *:834 (LISTEN) ypbind 656 0 7u IPv4 1319 TCP *:834 (LISTEN) ypbind 657 0 7u IPv4 1319 TCP *:834 (LISTEN)
These tools reveal a great deal about the status of the services running on a machine. These tools are flexible and can provide a wealth of information about network services and configuration. Refer to the man pages for
lsof, netstat, nmap, and services for more information.
2.2.??Server Security
When a system is used as a server on a public network, it becomes a target for attacks. Hardening the system and locking down services is therefore of paramount importance for the system administrator.
Before delving into specific issues, review the following general tips for enhancing server security:
- Keep all services current, to protect against the latest threats.
- Use secure protocols whenever possible.
- Serve only one type of network service per machine whenever possible.
- Monitor all servers carefully for suspicious activity.
2.2.1.??Securing Services With TCP Wrappers and xinetd
TCP Wrappers provide access control to a variety of services. Most modern network services, such as SSH, Telnet, and FTP, make use of TCP Wrappers, which stand guard between an incoming request and the requested service.
The benefits offered by TCP Wrappers are enhanced when used in conjunction with
xinetd, a super server that provides additional access, logging, binding, redirection, and resource utilization control.
Note
It is a good idea to use iptables firewall rules in conjunction with TCP Wrappers and
xinetd to create redundancy within service access controls. Refer to Section??2.8, ???Firewalls??? for more information about implementing firewalls with iptables commands.
The following subsections assume a basic knowledge of each topic and focus on specific security options.
2.2.1.1.??Enhancing Security With TCP Wrappers
TCP Wrappers are capable of much more than denying access to services. This section illustrates how they can be used to send connection banners, warn of attacks from particular hosts, and enhance logging functionality. Refer to the
hosts_options man page for information about the TCP Wrapper functionality and control language.
2.2.1.1.1.??TCP Wrappers and Connection Banners
Displaying a suitable banner when users connect to a service is a good way to let potential attackers know that the system administrator is being vigilant. You can also control what information about the system is presented to users. To implement a TCP Wrappers banner for a service, use the
banner option.
This example implements a banner for
vsftpd. To begin, create a banner file. It can be anywhere on the system, but it must have same name as the daemon. For this example, the file is called /etc/banners/vsftpd and contains the following line:
220-Hello, %c 220-All activity on ftp.example.com is logged. 220-Inappropriate use will result in your access privileges being removed.
The
%c token supplies a variety of client information, such as the username and hostname, or the username and IP address to make the connection even more intimidating.
For this banner to be displayed to incoming connections, add the following line to the
/etc/hosts.allow file:
vsftpd : ALL : banners /etc/banners/
2.2.1.1.2.??TCP Wrappers and Attack Warnings
If a particular host or network has been detected attacking the server, TCP Wrappers can be used to warn the administrator of subsequent attacks from that host or network using the
spawn directive.
In this example, assume that a cracker from the 206.182.68.0/24 network has been detected attempting to attack the server. Place the following line in the
/etc/hosts.deny file to deny any connection attempts from that network, and to log the attempts to a special file:
ALL : 206.182.68.0 : spawn /bin/ 'date' %c %d >> /var/log/intruder_alert
The
%d token supplies the name of the service that the attacker was trying to access.
To allow the connection and log it, place the
spawn directive in the /etc/hosts.allow file.
Note
Because the
spawn directive executes any shell command, it is a good idea to create a special script to notify the administrator or execute a chain of commands in the event that a particular client attempts to connect to the server.
2.2.1.1.3.??TCP Wrappers and Enhanced Logging
If certain types of connections are of more concern than others, the log level can be elevated for that service using the
severity option.
For this example, assume that anyone attempting to connect to port 23 (the Telnet port) on an FTP server is a cracker. To denote this, place an
emerg flag in the log files instead of the default flag, info, and deny the connection.
To do this, place the following line in
/etc/hosts.deny:
in.telnetd : ALL : severity emerg
This uses the default
authpriv logging facility, but elevates the priority from the default value of info to emerg, which posts log messages directly to the console.
2.2.1.2.??Enhancing Security With xinetd
This section focuses on using
xinetd to set a trap service and using it to control resource levels available to any given xinetd service. Setting resource limits for services can help thwart Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. Refer to the man pages for xinetd and xinetd.conf for a list of available options.
2.2.1.2.1.??Setting a Trap
One important feature of
xinetd is its ability to add hosts to a global no_access list. Hosts on this list are denied subsequent connections to services managed by xinetd for a specified period or until xinetd is restarted. You can do this using the SENSOR attribute. This is an easy way to block hosts attempting to scan the ports on the server.
The first step in setting up a
SENSOR is to choose a service you do not plan on using. For this example, Telnet is used.
Edit the file
/etc/xinetd.d/telnet and change the flags line to read:
flags = SENSOR
Add the following line:
deny_time = 30
This denies any further connection attempts to that port by that host for 30 minutes. Other acceptable values for the
deny_time attribute are FOREVER, which keeps the ban in effect until xinetd is restarted, and NEVER, which allows the connection and logs it.
Finally, the last line should read:
disable = no
This enables the trap itself.
While using
SENSOR is a good way to detect and stop connections from undesirable hosts, it has two drawbacks:
- It does not work against stealth scans.
- An attacker who knows that a
SENSORis running can mount a Denial of Service attack against particular hosts by forging their IP addresses and connecting to the forbidden port.
2.2.1.2.2.??Controlling Server Resources
Another important feature of
xinetd is its ability to set resource limits for services under its control.
It does this using the following directives:
cps = <number_of_connections> <wait_period>??? Limits the rate of incoming connections. This directive takes two arguments:<number_of_connections>??? The number of connections per second to handle. If the rate of incoming connections is higher than this, the service is temporarily disabled. The default value is fifty (50).<wait_period>??? The number of seconds to wait before re-enabling the service after it has been disabled. The default interval is ten (10) seconds.
instances = <number_of_connections>??? Specifies the total number of connections allowed to a service. This directive accepts either an integer value orUNLIMITED.per_source = <number_of_connections>??? Specifies the number of connections allowed to a service by each host. This directive accepts either an integer value orUNLIMITED.rlimit_as = <number[K|M]>??? Specifies the amount of memory address space the service can occupy in kilobytes or megabytes. This directive accepts either an integer value orUNLIMITED.rlimit_cpu = <number_of_seconds>??? Specifies the amount of time in seconds that a service may occupy the CPU. This directive accepts either an integer value orUNLIMITED.
Using these directives can help prevent any single
xinetd service from overwhelming the system, resulting in a denial of service.
2.3.5.??Configuring Firefox to use Kerberos for SSO
You can configure Firefox to use Kerberos for Single Sign-on. In order for this functionality to work correctly, you need to configure your web browser to send your Kerberos credentials to the appropriate KDC.The following section describes the configuration changes and other requirements to achieve this.
- In the address bar of Firefox, type
about:configto display the list of current configuration options. - In the Filter field, type
negotiateto restrict the list of options. - Double-click the network.negotiate-auth.trusted-uris entry to display the Enter string value dialog box.
- Enter the name of the domain against which you want to authenticate, for example,
.example.com. - Repeat the above procedure for the network.negotiate-auth.delegation-uris entry, using the same domain.
Note
You can leave this value blank, as it allows Kerberos ticket passing, which is not required.If you do not see these two configuration options listed, your version of Firefox may be too old to support Negotiate authentication, and you should consider upgrading.
Configuring Firefox to use Kerberos for SSO.
Figure??2.6.??Configuring Firefox for SSO with Kerberos
You now need to ensure that you have Kerberos tickets. In a command shell, type
kinit to retrieve Kerberos tickets. To display the list of available tickets, type klist. The following shows an example output from these commands:
[user at host ~] $ kinit
Password for user at EXAMPLE.COM:
[user at host ~] $ klist
Ticket cache: FILE:/tmp/krb5cc_10920
Default principal: user at EXAMPLE.COM
Valid starting Expires Service principal
10/26/06 23:47:54 10/27/06 09:47:54 krbtgt/USER.COM at USER.COM
renew until 10/26/06 23:47:54
Kerberos 4 ticket cache: /tmp/tkt10920
klist: You have no tickets cached
2.3.5.1.??Troubleshooting
If you have followed the configuration steps above and Negotiate authentication is not working, you can turn on verbose logging of the authentication process. This could help you find the cause of the problem. To enable verbose logging, use the following procedure:
- Close all instances of Firefox.
- Open a command shell, and enter the following commands:
export NSPR_LOG_MODULES=negotiateauth:5 export NSPR_LOG_FILE=/tmp/moz.log
- Restart Firefox from that shell, and visit the website you were unable to authenticate to earlier. Information will be logged to
/tmp/moz.log, and may give a clue to the problem. For example:-1208550944[90039d0]: entering nsNegotiateAuth::GetNextToken() -1208550944[90039d0]: gss_init_sec_context() failed: Miscellaneous failure No credentials cache found
This indicates that you do not have Kerberos tickets, and need to runkinit.
If you are able to run
kinit successfully from your machine but you are unable to authenticate, you might see something like this in the log file:
-1208994096[8d683d8]: entering nsAuthGSSAPI::GetNextToken() -1208994096[8d683d8]: gss_init_sec_context() failed: Miscellaneous failure Server not found in Kerberos database
This generally indicates a Kerberos configuration problem. Make sure that you have the correct entries in the [domain_realm] section of the
/etc/krb5.conf file. For example:
.example.com = EXAMPLE.COM example.com = EXAMPLE.COM
If nothing appears in the log it is possible that you are behind a proxy, and that proxy is stripping off the HTTP headers required for Negotiate authentication. As a workaround, you can try to connect to the server using HTTPS instead, which allows the request to pass through unmodified. Then proceed to debug using the log file, as described above.
2.3.2.??Getting Started with your new Smart Card
Before you can use your smart card to log in to your system and take advantage of the increased security options this technology provides, you need to perform some basic installation and configuration steps. These are described below.
Note
This section provides a high-level view of getting started with your smart card. More detailed information is available in the Red Hat Certificate System Enterprise Security Client Guide.
- Log in with your Kerberos name and password
- Make sure you have the
nss-toolspackage loaded. - Download and install your corporate-specific root certificates. Use the following command to install the root CA certificate:
certutil -A -d /etc/pki/nssdb -n "root ca cert" -t "CT,C,C" -i ./ca_cert_in_base64_format.crt
- Verify that you have the following RPMs installed on your system: esc, pam_pkcs11, coolkey, ifd-egate, ccid, gdm, authconfig, and authconfig-gtk.
- Enable Smart Card Login Support
- On the Gnome Title Bar, select System->Administration->Authentication.
- Type your machine's root password if necessary.
- In the Authentication Configuration dialog, click the Authentication tab.
- Select the Enable Smart Card Support check box.
- Click the button to display the Smartcard Settings dialog, and specify the required settings:
- Require smart card for login ??? Clear this check box. After you have successfully logged in with the smart card you can select this option to prevent users from logging in without a smart card.
- Card Removal Action ??? This controls what happens when you remove the smart card after you have logged in. The available options are:
- Lock ??? Removing the smart card locks the X screen.
- Ignore ??? Removing the smart card has no effect.
- If you need to enable the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP), open the
/etc/pam_pkcs11/pam_pkcs11.conffile, and locate the following line:enable_ocsp = false;Change this value to true, as follows:enable_ocsp = true; - Enroll your smart card
- If you are using a CAC card, you also need to perform the following steps:
- Change to the root account and create a file called
/etc/pam_pkcs11/cn_map. - Add the following entry to the
cn_mapfile:MY.CAC_CN.123454->myloginidwhereMY.CAC_CN.123454is the Common Name on your CAC andmyloginidis your UNIX login ID.
- Logout
2.3.2.1.??Troubleshooting
If you have trouble getting your smart card to work, try using the following command to locate the source of the problem:
pklogin_finder debug
If you run the
pklogin_finder tool in debug mode while an enrolled smart card is plugged in, it attempts to output information about the validity of certificates, and if it is successful in attempting to map a login ID from the certificates that are on the card.
2.3.3.??How Smart Card Enrollment Works
Smart cards are said to be enrolled when they have received an appropriate certificate signed by a valid Certificate Authority (CA). This involves several steps, described below:
- The user inserts their smart card into the smart card reader on their workstation. This event is recognized by the Enterprise Security Client (ESC).
- The enrollment page is displayed on the user's desktop. The user completes the required details and the user's system then connects to the Token Processing System (TPS) and the CA.
- The TPS enrolls the smart card using a certificate signed by the CA.
How Smart Card Enrollment Works.
Figure??2.4.??How Smart Card Enrollment Works
2.3.4.??How Smart Card Login Works
This section provides a brief overview of the process of logging in using a smart card.
- When the user inserts their smart card into the smart card reader, this event is recognized by the PAM facility, which prompts for the user's PIN.
- The system then looks up the user's current certificates and verifies their validity. The certificate is then mapped to the user's UID.
- This is validated against the KDC and login granted.
How Smart Card Login Works.
Figure??2.5.??How Smart Card Login Works
Note
You cannot log in with a card that has not been enrolled, even if it has been formatted. You need to log in with a formatted, enrolled card, or not using a smart card, before you can enroll a new card.
Refer to Section??2.6, ???Kerberos??? and Section??2.4, ???Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)??? for more information on Kerberos and PAM.
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2.3.??Single Sign-on (SSO)
2.3.1.??Introduction
The Fedora SSO functionality reduces the number of times Fedora desktop users have to enter their passwords. Several major applications leverage the same underlying authentication and authorization mechanisms so that users can log in to Fedora from the log-in screen, and then not need to re-enter their passwords. These applications are detailed below.
In addition, users can log in to their machines even when there is no network (offline mode) or where network connectivity is unreliable, for example, wireless access. In the latter case, services will degrade gracefully.
2.3.1.1.??Supported Applications
The following applications are currently supported by the unified log-in scheme in Fedora:
- Login
- Screensaver
- Firefox and Thunderbird
2.3.1.2.??Supported Authentication Mechanisms
Fedora currently supports the following authentication mechanisms:
- Kerberos name/password login
- Smart card/PIN login
2.3.1.3.??Supported Smart Cards
Fedora has been tested with the Cyberflex e-gate card and reader, but any card that complies with both Java card 2.1.1 and Global Platform 2.0.1 specifications should operate correctly, as should any reader that is supported by PCSC-lite.
Fedora has also been tested with Common Access Cards (CAC). The supported reader for CAC is the SCM SCR 331 USB Reader.
As of Fedora 5.2, Gemalto smart cards (Cyberflex Access 64k v2, standard with DER SHA1 value configured as in PKCSI v2.1) are now supported. These smart cards now use readers compliant with Chip/Smart Card Interface Devices (CCID).
2.3.1.4.??Advantages of Fedora Single Sign-on
Numerous security mechanisms currently exist that utilize a large number of protocols and credential stores. Examples include SSL, SSH, IPsec, and Kerberos. Fedora SSO aims to unify these schemes to support the requirements listed above. This does not mean replacing Kerberos with X.509v3 certificates, but rather uniting them to reduce the burden on both system users and the administrators who manage them.
To achieve this goal, Fedora:
- Provides a single, shared instance of the NSS crypto libraries on each operating system.
- Ships the Certificate System's Enterprise Security Client (ESC) with the base operating system. The ESC application monitors smart card insertion events. If it detects that the user has inserted a smart card that was designed to be used with the Fedora Certificate System server product, it displays a user interface instructing the user how to enroll that smart card.
- Unifies Kerberos and NSS so that users who log in to the operating system using a smart card also obtain a Kerberos credential (which allows them to log in to file servers, etc.)
- Prev2.2.8.??Verifying Which Ports Are Listening
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6.4.??Install Signed Packages from Well Known Repositories
Software packages are published through repositories. All well known repositories support package signing. Package signing uses public key technology to prove that the package that was published by the repository has not been changed since the signature was applied. This provides some protection against installing software that may have been maliciously altered after the package was created but before you downloaded it.
Using too many repositories, untrustworthy repositories, or repositories with unsigned packages has a higher risk of introducing malicious or vulnerable code into your system. Use caution when adding repositories to yum/software update.
6.3.??Adjusting Automatic Updates
Fedora is configured to apply all updates on a daily schedule. If you want to change the how your system installs updates you must do so via '''Software Update Preferences'''. You can change the schedule, the type of updates to apply or to notify you of available updates.
In Gnome, you can find controls for your updates at:
System -> Preferences -> System -> Software Updates. In KDE it is located at: Applications -> Settings -> Software Updates.
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6.2.??Plan and Configure Security Updates
All software contains bugs. Often, these bugs can result in a vulnerability that can expose your system to malicious users. Unpatched systems are a common cause of computer intrusions. You should have a plan to install security patches in a timely manner to close those vulnerabilities so they can not be exploited.
For home users, security updates should be installed as soon as possible. Configuring automatic installation of security updates is one way to avoid having to remember, but does carry a slight risk that something can cause a conflict with your configuration or with other software on the system.
For business or advanced home users, security updates should be tested and schedule for installation. Additional controls will need to be used to protect the system during the time between the patch release and its installation on the system. These controls would depend on the exact vulnerability, but could include additional firewall rules, the use of external firewalls, or changes in software settings.
2.5.2.2.??Option Fields
In addition to basic rules that allow and deny access, the Fedora implementation of TCP Wrappers supports extensions to the access control language through option fields. By using option fields in hosts access rules, administrators can accomplish a variety of tasks such as altering log behavior, consolidating access control, and launching shell commands.
2.5.2.2.1.??Logging
Option fields let administrators easily change the log facility and priority level for a rule by using the
severity directive.
In the following example, connections to the SSH daemon from any host in the
example.com domain are logged to the default authpriv syslog facility (because no facility value is specified) with a priority of emerg:
sshd : .example.com : severity emerg
It is also possible to specify a facility using the
severity option. The following example logs any SSH connection attempts by hosts from the example.com domain to the local0 facility with a priority of alert:
sshd : .example.com : severity local0.alert
Note
In practice, this example does not work until the syslog daemon (
syslogd) is configured to log to the local0 facility. Refer to the syslog.conf man page for information about configuring custom log facilities.
2.5.5.??Additional Resources
More information about TCP Wrappers and
xinetd is available from system documentation and on the Internet.
2.5.5.1.??Installed TCP Wrappers Documentation
The documentation on your system is a good place to start looking for additional configuration options for TCP Wrappers,
xinetd, and access control.
/usr/share/doc/tcp_wrappers-??? This directory contains a<version>/READMEfile that discusses how TCP Wrappers work and the various hostname and host address spoofing risks that exist./usr/share/doc/xinetd-??? This directory contains a<version>/READMEfile that discusses aspects of access control and asample.conffile with various ideas for modifying service-specific configuration files in the/etc/xinetd.d/directory.- TCP Wrappers and
xinetd-related man pages ??? A number of man pages exist for the various applications and configuration files involved with TCP Wrappers andxinetd. The following are some of the more important man pages:- Server Applications
man xinetd??? The man page forxinetd.
- Configuration Files
man 5 hosts_access??? The man page for the TCP Wrappers hosts access control files.man hosts_options??? The man page for the TCP Wrappers options fields.man xinetd.conf??? The man page listingxinetdconfiguration options.
2.5.2.??TCP Wrappers Configuration Files
To determine if a client is allowed to connect to a service, TCP Wrappers reference the following two files, which are commonly referred to as hosts access files:
/etc/hosts.allow/etc/hosts.deny
When a TCP-wrapped service receives a client request, it performs the following steps:
- It references
/etc/hosts.allow. ??? The TCP-wrapped service sequentially parses the/etc/hosts.allowfile and applies the first rule specified for that service. If it finds a matching rule, it allows the connection. If not, it moves on to the next step. - It references
/etc/hosts.deny. ??? The TCP-wrapped service sequentially parses the/etc/hosts.denyfile. If it finds a matching rule, it denies the connection. If not, it grants access to the service.
The following are important points to consider when using TCP Wrappers to protect network services:
- Because access rules in
hosts.alloware applied first, they take precedence over rules specified inhosts.deny. Therefore, if access to a service is allowed inhosts.allow, a rule denying access to that same service inhosts.denyis ignored. - The rules in each file are read from the top down and the first matching rule for a given service is the only one applied. The order of the rules is extremely important.
- If no rules for the service are found in either file, or if neither file exists, access to the service is granted.
- TCP-wrapped services do not cache the rules from the hosts access files, so any changes to
hosts.alloworhosts.denytake effect immediately, without restarting network services.
Warning
If the last line of a hosts access file is not a newline character (created by pressing the Enter key), the last rule in the file fails and an error is logged to either
/var/log/messages or /var/log/secure. This is also the case for a rule that spans multiple lines without using the backslash character. The following example illustrates the relevant portion of a log message for a rule failure due to either of these circumstances:
warning: /etc/hosts.allow, line 20: missing newline or line too long
2.5.2.1.??Formatting Access Rules
The format for both
/etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny is identical. Each rule must be on its own line. Blank lines or lines that start with a hash (#) are ignored.
Each rule uses the following basic format to control access to network services:
<daemon list>:<client list>[:<option>:<option>: ...]
<daemon list>??? A comma-separated list of process names (not service names) or theALLwildcard. The daemon list also accepts operators (refer to Section??2.5.2.1.4, ???Operators???) to allow greater flexibility.<client list>??? A comma-separated list of hostnames, host IP addresses, special patterns, or wildcards which identify the hosts affected by the rule. The client list also accepts operators listed in Section??2.5.2.1.4, ???Operators??? to allow greater flexibility.<option>??? An optional action or colon-separated list of actions performed when the rule is triggered. Option fields support expansions, launch shell commands, allow or deny access, and alter logging behavior.
Note
More information on the specialist terms above can be found elsewhere in this Guide:
The following is a basic sample hosts access rule:
vsftpd : .example.com
This rule instructs TCP Wrappers to watch for connections to the FTP daemon (
vsftpd) from any host in the example.com domain. If this rule appears in hosts.allow, the connection is accepted. If this rule appears in hosts.deny, the connection is rejected.
The next sample hosts access rule is more complex and uses two option fields:
sshd : .example.com \ : spawn /bin/echo `/bin/date` access denied>>/var/log/sshd.log \ : deny
Note that each option field is preceded by the backslash (\). Use of the backslash prevents failure of the rule due to length.
This sample rule states that if a connection to the SSH daemon (
sshd) is attempted from a host in the example.com domain, execute the echo command to append the attempt to a special log file, and deny the connection. Because the optional deny directive is used, this line denies access even if it appears in the hosts.allow file. Refer to Section??2.5.2.2, ???Option Fields??? for a more detailed look at available options.
2.5.2.1.1.??Wildcards
Wildcards allow TCP Wrappers to more easily match groups of daemons or hosts. They are used most frequently in the client list field of access rules.
The following wildcards are available:
ALL??? Matches everything. It can be used for both the daemon list and the client list.LOCAL??? Matches any host that does not contain a period (.), such as localhost.KNOWN??? Matches any host where the hostname and host address are known or where the user is known.UNKNOWN??? Matches any host where the hostname or host address are unknown or where the user is unknown.PARANOID??? Matches any host where the hostname does not match the host address.
Important
The
KNOWN, UNKNOWN, and PARANOID wildcards should be used with care, because they rely on functioning DNS server for correct operation. Any disruption to name resolution may prevent legitimate users from gaining access to a service.
2.5.2.1.2.??Patterns
Patterns can be used in the client field of access rules to more precisely specify groups of client hosts.
The following is a list of common patterns for entries in the client field:
- Hostname beginning with a period (.) ??? Placing a period at the beginning of a hostname matches all hosts sharing the listed components of the name. The following example applies to any host within the
example.comdomain:ALL : .example.com
- IP address ending with a period (.) ??? Placing a period at the end of an IP address matches all hosts sharing the initial numeric groups of an IP address. The following example applies to any host within the
192.168.x.xnetwork:ALL : 192.168.
- IP address/netmask pair ??? Netmask expressions can also be used as a pattern to control access to a particular group of IP addresses. The following example applies to any host with an address range of
192.168.0.0through192.168.1.255:ALL : 192.168.0.0/255.255.254.0
Important
When working in the IPv4 address space, the address/prefix length (prefixlen) pair declarations (CIDR notation) are not supported. Only IPv6 rules can use this format. - [IPv6 address]/prefixlen pair ??? [net]/prefixlen pairs can also be used as a pattern to control access to a particular group of IPv6 addresses. The following example would apply to any host with an address range of
3ffe:505:2:1::through3ffe:505:2:1:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ALL : [3ffe:505:2:1::]/64
- The asterisk (*) ??? Asterisks can be used to match entire groups of hostnames or IP addresses, as long as they are not mixed in a client list containing other types of patterns. The following example would apply to any host within the
example.comdomain:ALL : *.example.com
- The slash (/) ??? If a client list begins with a slash, it is treated as a file name. This is useful if rules specifying large numbers of hosts are necessary. The following example refers TCP Wrappers to the
/etc/telnet.hostsfile for all Telnet connections:in.telnetd : /etc/telnet.hosts
Other, lesser used, patterns are also accepted by TCP Wrappers. Refer to the
hosts_access man 5 page for more information.
Warning
Be very careful when using hostnames and domain names. Attackers can use a variety of tricks to circumvent accurate name resolution. In addition, disruption to DNS service prevents even authorized users from using network services. It is, therefore, best to use IP addresses whenever possible.
2.5.2.1.3.??Portmap and TCP Wrappers
Portmap's implementation of TCP Wrappers does not support host look-ups, which means portmap can not use hostnames to identify hosts. Consequently, access control rules for portmap in hosts.allow or hosts.deny must use IP addresses, or the keyword ALL, for specifying hosts.
Changes to
portmap access control rules may not take effect immediately. You may need to restart the portmap service.
Widely used services, such as NIS and NFS, depend on
portmap to operate, so be aware of these limitations.
2.5.2.1.4.??Operators
At present, access control rules accept one operator,
EXCEPT. It can be used in both the daemon list and the client list of a rule.
The
EXCEPT operator allows specific exceptions to broader matches within the same rule.
In the following example from a
hosts.allow file, all example.com hosts are allowed to connect to all services except cracker.example.com:
ALL: .example.com EXCEPT cracker.example.com
In another example from a
hosts.allow file, clients from the 192.168.0.x network can use all services except for FTP:
ALL EXCEPT vsftpd: 192.168.0.
Note
Organizationally, it is often easier to avoid using
EXCEPT operators. This allows other administrators to quickly scan the appropriate files to see what hosts are allowed or denied access to services, without having to sort through EXCEPT operators.
2.5.3.??xinetd
The
xinetd daemon is a TCP-wrapped super service which controls access to a subset of popular network services, including FTP, IMAP, and Telnet. It also provides service-specific configuration options for access control, enhanced logging, binding, redirection, and resource utilization control.
When a client attempts to connect to a network service controlled by
xinetd, the super service receives the request and checks for any TCP Wrappers access control rules.
If access is allowed,
xinetd verifies that the connection is allowed under its own access rules for that service. It also checks that the service can have more resources allotted to it and that it is not in breach of any defined rules.
If all these conditions are met (that is, access is allowed to the service; the service has not reached its resource limit; and the service is not in breach of any defined rule),
xinetd then starts an instance of the requested service and passes control of the connection to it. After the connection has been established, xinetd takes no further part in the communication between the client and the server.
2.5.4.??xinetd Configuration Files
The configuration files for
xinetd are as follows:
/etc/xinetd.conf??? The globalxinetdconfiguration file./etc/xinetd.d/??? The directory containing all service-specific files.
2.5.4.1.??The /etc/xinetd.conf File
The
/etc/xinetd.conf file contains general configuration settings which affect every service under xinetd's control. It is read when the xinetd service is first started, so for configuration changes to take effect, you need to restart the xinetd service. The following is a sample /etc/xinetd.conf file:
defaults
{
instances = 60
log_type = SYSLOG authpriv
log_on_success = HOST PID
log_on_failure = HOST
cps = 25 30
}
includedir /etc/xinetd.d
These lines control the following aspects of
xinetd:
instances??? Specifies the maximum number of simultaneous requests thatxinetdcan process.log_type??? Configuresxinetdto use theauthprivlog facility, which writes log entries to the/var/log/securefile. Adding a directive such asFILE /var/log/xinetdlogwould create a custom log file calledxinetdlogin the/var/log/directory.log_on_success??? Configuresxinetdto log successful connection attempts. By default, the remote host's IP address and the process ID of the server processing the request are recorded.log_on_failure??? Configuresxinetdto log failed connection attempts or if the connection was denied.cps??? Configuresxinetdto allow no more than 25 connections per second to any given service. If this limit is exceeded, the service is retired for 30 seconds.includedir/etc/xinetd.d/??? Includes options declared in the service-specific configuration files located in the/etc/xinetd.d/directory. Refer to Section??2.5.4.2, ???The /etc/xinetd.d/ Directory??? for more information.
Note
Often, both the
log_on_success and log_on_failure settings in /etc/xinetd.conf are further modified in the service-specific configuration files. More information may therefore appear in a given service's log file than the /etc/xinetd.conf file may indicate. Refer to Section??2.5.4.3.1, ???Logging Options??? for further information.
2.5.??TCP Wrappers and xinetd
Controlling access to network services is one of the most important security tasks facing a server administrator. Fedora provides several tools for this purpose. For example, an
iptables-based firewall filters out unwelcome network packets within the kernel's network stack. For network services that utilize it, TCP Wrappers add an additional layer of protection by defining which hosts are or are not allowed to connect to "wrapped" network services. One such wrapped network service is the xinetd super server. This service is called a super server because it controls connections to a subset of network services and further refines access control.
Figure??2.9, ???Access Control to Network Services??? is a basic illustration of how these tools work together to protect network services.
Exhibit A: Access Control to Network Services Flowchart
Figure??2.9.??Access Control to Network Services
This chapter focuses on the role of TCP Wrappers and
xinetd in controlling access to network services and reviews how these tools can be used to enhance both logging and utilization management. Refer to Section??2.9, ???IPTables??? for information about using firewalls with iptables.
2.5.1.??TCP Wrappers
The TCP Wrappers package (
tcp_wrappers) is installed by default and provides host-based access control to network services. The most important component within the package is the /usr/lib/libwrap.a library. In general terms, a TCP-wrapped service is one that has been compiled against the libwrap.a library.
When a connection attempt is made to a TCP-wrapped service, the service first references the host's access files (
/etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny) to determine whether or not the client is allowed to connect. In most cases, it then uses the syslog daemon (syslogd) to write the name of the requesting client and the requested service to /var/log/secure or /var/log/messages.
If a client is allowed to connect, TCP Wrappers release control of the connection to the requested service and take no further part in the communication between the client and the server.
In addition to access control and logging, TCP Wrappers can execute commands to interact with the client before denying or releasing control of the connection to the requested network service.
Because TCP Wrappers are a valuable addition to any server administrator's arsenal of security tools, most network services within Fedora are linked to the
libwrap.a library. Some such applications include /usr/sbin/sshd, /usr/sbin/sendmail, and /usr/sbin/xinetd.
Note
To determine if a network service binary is linked to
libwrap.a, type the following command as the root user:
ldd <binary-name> | grep libwrap
Replace
<binary-name> with the name of the network service binary.
If the command returns straight to the prompt with no output, then the network service is not linked to
libwrap.a.
The following example indicates that
/usr/sbin/sshd is linked to libwrap.a:
[root at myServer ~]# ldd /usr/sbin/sshd | grep libwrap
libwrap.so.0 => /lib/libwrap.so.0 (0x00655000)
[root at myServer ~]#
2.5.1.1.??Advantages of TCP Wrappers
TCP Wrappers provide the following advantages over other network service control techniques:
- Transparency to both the client and the wrapped network service ??? Both the connecting client and the wrapped network service are unaware that TCP Wrappers are in use. Legitimate users are logged and connected to the requested service while connections from banned clients fail.
- Centralized management of multiple protocols ??? TCP Wrappers operate separately from the network services they protect, allowing many server applications to share a common set of access control configuration files, making for simpler management.
1.3.3.3.??Inattentive Administration
Administrators who fail to patch their systems are one of the greatest threats to server security. According to the SysAdmin, Audit, Network, Security Institute (SANS), the primary cause of computer security vulnerability is to "assign untrained people to maintain security and provide neither the training nor the time to make it possible to do the job."[10] This applies as much to inexperienced administrators as it does to overconfident or amotivated administrators.
Some administrators fail to patch their servers and workstations, while others fail to watch log messages from the system kernel or network traffic. Another common error is when default passwords or keys to services are left unchanged. For example, some databases have default administration passwords because the database developers assume that the system administrator changes these passwords immediately after installation. If a database administrator fails to change this password, even an inexperienced cracker can use a widely-known default password to gain administrative privileges to the database. These are only a few examples of how inattentive administration can lead to compromised servers.
1.3.3.4.??Inherently Insecure Services
Even the most vigilant organization can fall victim to vulnerabilities if the network services they choose are inherently insecure. For instance, there are many services developed under the assumption that they are used over trusted networks; however, this assumption fails as soon as the service becomes available over the Internet ??? which is itself inherently untrusted.
One category of insecure network services are those that require unencrypted usernames and passwords for authentication. Telnet and FTP are two such services. If packet sniffing software is monitoring traffic between the remote user and such a service usernames and passwords can be easily intercepted.
Inherently, such services can also more easily fall prey to what the security industry terms the man-in-the-middle attack. In this type of attack, a cracker redirects network traffic by tricking a cracked name server on the network to point to his machine instead of the intended server. Once someone opens a remote session to the server, the attacker's machine acts as an invisible conduit, sitting quietly between the remote service and the unsuspecting user capturing information. In this way a cracker can gather administrative passwords and raw data without the server or the user realizing it.
Another category of insecure services include network file systems and information services such as NFS or NIS, which are developed explicitly for LAN usage but are, unfortunately, extended to include WANs (for remote users). NFS does not, by default, have any authentication or security mechanisms configured to prevent a cracker from mounting the NFS share and accessing anything contained therein. NIS, as well, has vital information that must be known by every computer on a network, including passwords and file permissions, within a plain text ASCII or DBM (ASCII-derived) database. A cracker who gains access to this database can then access every user account on a network, including the administrator's account.
By default, Fedora is released with all such services turned off. However, since administrators often find themselves forced to use these services, careful configuration is critical. Refer to Section??2.2, ???Server Security??? for more information about setting up services in a safe manner.
- Prev1.3.3.3.??Inattentive Administration
- Up
- Home
- Next1.3.4.??Threats to Workstation and Home PC Security
1.3.3.2.??Unpatched Services
Most server applications that are included in a default installation are solid, thoroughly tested pieces of software. Having been in use in production environments for many years, their code has been thoroughly refined and many of the bugs have been found and fixed.
However, there is no such thing as perfect software and there is always room for further refinement. Moreover, newer software is often not as rigorously tested as one might expect, because of its recent arrival to production environments or because it may not be as popular as other server software.
Developers and system administrators often find exploitable bugs in server applications and publish the information on bug tracking and security-related websites such as the Bugtraq mailing list (http://www.securityfocus.com) or the Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) website (http://www.cert.org). Although these mechanisms are an effective way of alerting the community to security vulnerabilities, it is up to system administrators to patch their systems promptly. This is particularly true because crackers have access to these same vulnerability tracking services and will use the information to crack unpatched systems whenever they can. Good system administration requires vigilance, constant bug tracking, and proper system maintenance to ensure a more secure computing environment.
Refer to Section??1.5, ???Security Updates??? for more information about keeping a system up-to-date.
1.3.4.2.??Vulnerable Client Applications
Although an administrator may have a fully secure and patched server, that does not mean remote users are secure when accessing it. For instance, if the server offers Telnet or FTP services over a public network, an attacker can capture the plain text usernames and passwords as they pass over the network, and then use the account information to access the remote user's workstation.
Even when using secure protocols, such as SSH, a remote user may be vulnerable to certain attacks if they do not keep their client applications updated. For instance, v.1 SSH clients are vulnerable to an X-forwarding attack from malicious SSH servers. Once connected to the server, the attacker can quietly capture any keystrokes and mouse clicks made by the client over the network. This problem was fixed in the v.2 SSH protocol, but it is up to the user to keep track of what applications have such vulnerabilities and update them as necessary.
Section??2.1, ???Workstation Security??? discusses in more detail what steps administrators and home users should take to limit the vulnerability of computer workstations.
1.5.4.??Applying the Changes
After downloading and installing security errata and updates, it is important to halt usage of the older software and begin using the new software. How this is done depends on the type of software that has been updated. The following list itemizes the general categories of software and provides instructions for using the updated versions after a package upgrade.
Note
In general, rebooting the system is the surest way to ensure that the latest version of a software package is used; however, this option is not always required, or available to the system administrator.
- Applications
- User-space applications are any programs that can be initiated by a system user. Typically, such applications are used only when a user, script, or automated task utility launches them and they do not persist for long periods of time.Once such a user-space application is updated, halt any instances of the application on the system and launch the program again to use the updated version.
- Kernel
- The kernel is the core software component for the Fedora operating system. It manages access to memory, the processor, and peripherals as well as schedules all tasks.Because of its central role, the kernel cannot be restarted without also stopping the computer. Therefore, an updated version of the kernel cannot be used until the system is rebooted.
- Shared Libraries
- Shared libraries are units of code, such as
glibc, which are used by a number of applications and services. Applications utilizing a shared library typically load the shared code when the application is initialized, so any applications using the updated library must be halted and relaunched.To determine which running applications link against a particular library, use thelsofcommand as in the following example:lsof /lib/libwrap.so*This command returns a list of all the running programs which use TCP wrappers for host access control. Therefore, any program listed must be halted and relaunched if thetcp_wrapperspackage is updated. - SysV Services
- SysV services are persistent server programs launched during the boot process. Examples of SysV services include
sshd,vsftpd, andxinetd.Because these programs usually persist in memory as long as the machine is booted, each updated SysV service must be halted and relaunched after the package is upgraded. This can be done using the Services Configuration Tool or by logging into a root shell prompt and issuing the/sbin/servicecommand as in the following example:/sbin/service<service-name>restartIn the previous example, replace<service-name>with the name of the service, such assshd. xinetdServices- Services controlled by the
xinetdsuper service only run when a there is an active connection. Examples of services controlled byxinetdinclude Telnet, IMAP, and POP3.Because new instances of these services are launched byxinetdeach time a new request is received, connections that occur after an upgrade are handled by the updated software. However, if there are active connections at the time thexinetdcontrolled service is upgraded, they are serviced by the older version of the software.To kill off older instances of a particularxinetdcontrolled service, upgrade the package for the service then halt all processes currently running. To determine if the process is running, use thepscommand and then use thekillorkillallcommand to halt current instances of the service.For example, if security errataimappackages are released, upgrade the packages, then type the following command as root into a shell prompt:ps -aux | grep imapThis command returns all active IMAP sessions. Individual sessions can then be terminated by issuing the following command:kill<PID>If this fails to terminate the session, use the following command instead:kill -9<PID>In the previous examples, replace<PID>with the process identification number (found in the second column of thepscommand) for an IMAP session.To kill all active IMAP sessions, issue the following command:killall imapd
1.5.3.??Installing Signed Packages
Installation for most packages can be done safely (except kernel packages) by issuing the following command:
rpm -Uvh /tmp/updates/*.rpm
For kernel packages use the following command:
rpm -ivh /tmp/updates/<kernel-package>
Replace
<kernel-package> in the previous example with the name of the kernel RPM.
Once the machine has been safely rebooted using the new kernel, the old kernel may be removed using the following command:
rpm -e <old-kernel-package>
Replace
<old-kernel-package> in the previous example with the name of the older kernel RPM.
Note
It is not a requirement that the old kernel be removed. The default boot loader, GRUB, allows for multiple kernels to be installed, then chosen from a menu at boot time.
Important
Before installing any security errata, be sure to read any special instructions contained in the errata report and execute them accordingly. Refer to Section??1.5.4, ???Applying the Changes??? for general instructions about applying the changes made by an errata update.
1.5.2.??Verifying Signed Packages
All Fedora packages are signed with the Fedora GPG key. GPG stands for GNU Privacy Guard, or GnuPG, a free software package used for ensuring the authenticity of distributed files. For example, a private key (secret key) locks the package while the public key unlocks and verifies the package. If the public key distributed by Fedora does not match the private key during RPM verification, the package may have been altered and therefore cannot be trusted.
The RPM utility within Fedora automatically tries to verify the GPG signature of an RPM package before installing it. If the Fedora GPG key is not installed, install it from a secure, static location, such as an Fedora installation CD-ROM or DVD.
Assuming the disc is mounted in
/mnt/cdrom, use the following command to import it into the keyring (a database of trusted keys on the system):
rpm --import /mnt/cdrom/RPM-GPG-KEY
To display a list of all keys installed for RPM verification, execute the following command:
rpm -qa gpg-pubkey*
The output will look similar to the following:
gpg-pubkey-db42a60e-37ea5438
To display details about a specific key, use the
rpm -qi command followed by the output from the previous command, as in this example:
rpm -qi gpg-pubkey-db42a60e-37ea5438
It is extremely important to verify the signature of the RPM files before installing them to ensure that they have not been altered from the original source of the packages. To verify all the downloaded packages at once, issue the following command:
rpm -K /tmp/updates/*.rpm
For each package, if the GPG key verifies successfully, the command returns
gpg OK. If it doesn't, make sure you are using the correct Fedora public key, as well as verifying the source of the content. Packages that do not pass GPG verifications should not be installed, as they may have been altered by a third party.
After verifying the GPG key and downloading all the packages associated with the errata report, install the packages as root at a shell prompt.
2.8.3.2.??Basic Firewall Policies
Establishing basic firewall policies creates a foundation for building more detailed, user-defined rules.
Each
iptables chain is comprised of a default policy, and zero or more rules which work in concert with the default policy to define the overall ruleset for the firewall.
The default policy for a chain can be either DROP or ACCEPT. Security-minded administrators typically implement a default policy of DROP, and only allow specific packets on a case-by-case basis. For example, the following policies block all incoming and outgoing packets on a network gateway:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -P INPUT DROP [root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -P OUTPUT DROP
It is also recommended that any forwarded packets ??? network traffic that is to be routed from the firewall to its destination node ??? be denied as well, to restrict internal clients from inadvertent exposure to the Internet. To do this, use the following rule:
[root at myServer ~ ] # iptables -P FORWARD DROP
When you have established the default policies for each chain, you can create and save further rules for your particular network and security requirements.
The following sections describe how to save iptables rules and outline some of the rules you might implement in the course of building your iptables firewall.
2.8.3.3.??Saving and Restoring IPTables Rules
Changes to
iptables are transitory; if the system is rebooted or if the iptables service is restarted, the rules are automatically flushed and reset. To save the rules so that they are loaded when the iptables service is started, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~ ] # service iptables save
The rules are stored in the file
/etc/sysconfig/iptables and are applied whenever the service is started or the machine is rebooted.
2.7.4.??Creating an IPsec Connection
An IPsec connection is split into two logical phases. In phase 1, an IPsec node initializes the connection with the remote node or network. The remote node or network checks the requesting node's credentials and both parties negotiate the authentication method for the connection.
On Fedora systems, an IPsec connection uses the pre-shared key method of IPsec node authentication. In a pre-shared key IPsec connection, both hosts must use the same key in order to move to Phase 2 of the IPsec connection.
Phase 2 of the IPsec connection is where the Security Association (SA) is created between IPsec nodes. This phase establishes an SA database with configuration information, such as the encryption method, secret session key exchange parameters, and more. This phase manages the actual IPsec connection between remote nodes and networks.
The Fedora implementation of IPsec uses IKE for sharing keys between hosts across the Internet. The
racoon keying daemon handles the IKE key distribution and exchange. Refer to the racoon man page for more information about this daemon.
2.7.3.??IPsec
Fedora supports IPsec for connecting remote hosts and networks to each other using a secure tunnel on a common carrier network such as the Internet. IPsec can be implemented using a host-to-host (one computer workstation to another) or network-to-network (one LAN/WAN to another) configuration.
The IPsec implementation in Fedora uses Internet Key Exchange (IKE), a protocol implemented by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), used for mutual authentication and secure associations between connecting systems.
2.7.6.??IPsec Host-to-Host Configuration
IPsec can be configured to connect one desktop or workstation (host) to another using a host-to-host connection. This type of connection uses the network to which each host is connected to create a secure tunnel between each host. The requirements of a host-to-host connection are minimal, as is the configuration of IPsec on each host. The hosts need only a dedicated connection to a carrier network (such as the Internet) and Fedora to create the IPsec connection.
2.7.6.1.??Host-to-Host Connection
A host-to-host IPsec connection is an encrypted connection between two systems, both running IPsec with the same authentication key. With the IPsec connection active, any network traffic between the two hosts is encrypted.
To configure a host-to-host IPsec connection, use the following steps for each host:
Note
You should perform the following procedures on the actual machine that you are configuring. Avoid attempting to configure and establish IPsec connections remotely.
- In a command shell, type
system-config-networkto start the Network Administration Tool. - On the IPsec tab, click to start the IPsec configuration wizard.
- Click to start configuring a host-to-host IPsec connection.
- Enter a unique name for the connection, for example,
ipsec0. If required, select the check box to automatically activate the connection when the computer starts. Click to continue. - Select Host to Host encryption as the connection type, and then click .
- Select the type of encryption to use: manual or automatic.If you select manual encryption, an encryption key must be provided later in the process. If you select automatic encryption, the
racoondaemon manages the encryption key. Theipsec-toolspackage must be installed if you want to use automatic encryption.Click to continue. - Enter the IP address of the remote host.To determine the IP address of the remote host, use the following command on the remote host:
[root at myServer ~] # /sbin/ifconfig
<device>where<device>is the Ethernet device that you want to use for the VPN connection.If only one Ethernet card exists in the system, the device name is typically eth0. The following example shows the relevant information from this command (note that this is an example output only):eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:0C:6E:E8:98:1D inet addr:172.16.44.192 Bcast:172.16.45.255 Mask:255.255.254.0The IP address is the number following theinet addr:label.Note
For host-to-host connections, both hosts should have a public, routable address. Alternatively, both hosts can have a private, non-routable address (for example, from the 10.x.x.x or 192.168.x.x ranges) as long as they are on the sam LAN.If the hosts are on different LANs, or one has a public address while the other has a private address, refer to Section??2.7.7, ???IPsec Network-to-Network Configuration???.Click to continue. - If manual encryption was selected in step 6, specify the encryption key to use, or click to create one.
- Specify an authentication key or click to generate one. It can be any combination of numbers and letters.
- Click to continue.
- Verify the information on the IPsec ??? Summary page, and then click .
- Click => to save the configuration.You may need to restart the network for the changes to take effect. To restart the network, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~]# service network restart
- Select the IPsec connection from the list and click the button.
- Repeat the entire procedure for the other host. It is essential that the same keys from step 8 be used on the other hosts. Otherwise, IPsec will not work.
After configuring the IPsec connection, it appears in the IPsec list as shown in Figure??2.10, ???IPsec Connection???.
IPsec Connection
Figure??2.10.??IPsec Connection
The following files are created when the IPsec connection is configured:
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-<nickname>/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/keys-<nickname>/etc/racoon/<remote-ip>.conf/etc/racoon/psk.txt
If automatic encryption is selected,
/etc/racoon/racoon.conf is also created.
When the interface is up,
/etc/racoon/racoon.conf is modified to include <remote-ip>.conf
2.7.5.??IPsec Installation
Implementing IPsec requires that the
ipsec-tools RPM package be installed on all IPsec hosts (if using a host-to-host configuration) or routers (if using a network-to-network configuration). The RPM package contains essential libraries, daemons, and configuration files for setting up the IPsec connection, including:
/sbin/setkey??? manipulates the key management and security attributes of IPsec in the kernel. This executable is controlled by theracoonkey management daemon. Refer to thesetkey(8) man page for more information./usr/sbin/racoon??? the IKE key management daemon, used to manage and control security associations and key sharing between IPsec-connected systems./etc/racoon/racoon.conf??? theracoondaemon configuration file used to configure various aspects of the IPsec connection, including authentication methods and encryption algorithms used in the connection. Refer to theracoon.conf(5) man page for a complete listing of available directives.
To configure IPsec on Fedora, you can use the Network Administration Tool, or manually edit the networking and IPsec configuration files.
- To connect two network-connected hosts via IPsec, refer to Section??2.7.6, ???IPsec Host-to-Host Configuration???.
- To connect one LAN/WAN to another via IPsec, refer to Section??2.7.7, ???IPsec Network-to-Network Configuration???.
2.7.7.??IPsec Network-to-Network Configuration
IPsec can also be configured to connect an entire network (such as a LAN or WAN) to a remote network using a network-to-network connection. A network-to-network connection requires the setup of IPsec routers on each side of the connecting networks to transparently process and route information from one node on a LAN to a node on a remote LAN. Figure??2.11, ???A network-to-network IPsec tunneled connection??? shows a network-to-network IPsec tunneled connection.
A network-to-network IPsec tunneled connection
Figure??2.11.??A network-to-network IPsec tunneled connection
This diagram shows two separate LANs separated by the Internet. These LANs use IPsec routers to authenticate and initiate a connection using a secure tunnel through the Internet. Packets that are intercepted in transit would require brute-force decryption in order to crack the cipher protecting the packets between these LANs. The process of communicating from one node in the 192.168.1.0/24 IP range to another in the 192.168.2.0/24 range is completely transparent to the nodes as the processing, encryption/decryption, and routing of the IPsec packets are completely handled by the IPsec router.
The information needed for a network-to-network connection include:
- The externally-accessible IP addresses of the dedicated IPsec routers
- The network address ranges of the LAN/WAN served by the IPsec routers (such as 192.168.1.0/24 or 10.0.1.0/24)
- The IP addresses of the gateway devices that route the data from the network nodes to the Internet
- A unique name, for example,
ipsec1. This is used to identify the IPsec connection and to distinguish it from other devices or connections. - A fixed encryption key or one automatically generated by
racoon - A pre-shared authentication key that is used during the initial stage of the connection and to exchange encryption keys during the session.
2.7.7.1.??Network-to-Network (VPN) Connection
A network-to-network IPsec connection uses two IPsec routers, one for each network, through which the network traffic for the private subnets is routed.
For example, as shown in Figure??2.12, ???Network-to-Network IPsec???, if the 192.168.1.0/24 private network sends network traffic to the 192.168.2.0/24 private network, the packets go through gateway0, to ipsec0, through the Internet, to ipsec1, to gateway1, and to the 192.168.2.0/24 subnet.
IPsec routers require publicly addressable IP addresses and a second Ethernet device connected to their respective private networks. Traffic only travels through an IPsec router if it is intended for another IPsec router with which it has an encrypted connection.
Network-to-Network IPsec
Figure??2.12.??Network-to-Network IPsec
Alternate network configuration options include a firewall between each IP router and the Internet, and an intranet firewall between each IPsec router and subnet gateway. The IPsec router and the gateway for the subnet can be one system with two Ethernet devices: one with a public IP address that acts as the IPsec router; and one with a private IP address that acts as the gateway for the private subnet. Each IPsec router can use the gateway for its private network or a public gateway to send the packets to the other IPsec router.
Use the following procedure to configure a network-to-network IPsec connection:
- In a command shell, type
system-config-networkto start the Network Administration Tool. - On the IPsec tab, click to start the IPsec configuration wizard.
- Click to start configuring a network-to-network IPsec connection.
- Enter a unique nickname for the connection, for example,
ipsec0. If required, select the check box to automatically activate the connection when the computer starts. Click to continue. - Select Network to Network encryption (VPN) as the connection type, and then click .
- Select the type of encryption to use: manual or automatic.If you select manual encryption, an encryption key must be provided later in the process. If you select automatic encryption, the
racoondaemon manages the encryption key. Theipsec-toolspackage must be installed if you want to use automatic encryption.Click to continue. - On the Local Network page, enter the following information:
- Local Network Address ??? The IP address of the device on the IPsec router connected to the private network.
- Local Subnet Mask ??? The subnet mask of the local network IP address.
- Local Network Gateway ??? The gateway for the private subnet.
Click to continue.
Local Network InformationFigure??2.13.??Local Network Information
- On the Remote Network page, enter the following information:
- Remote IP Address ??? The publicly addressable IP address of the IPsec router for the other private network. In our example, for ipsec0, enter the publicly addressable IP address of ipsec1, and vice versa.
- Remote Network Address ??? The network address of the private subnet behind the other IPsec router. In our example, enter
192.168.1.0if configuring ipsec1, and enter192.168.2.0if configuring ipsec0. - Remote Subnet Mask ??? The subnet mask of the remote IP address.
- Remote Network Gateway ??? The IP address of the gateway for the remote network address.
- If manual encryption was selected in step 6, specify the encryption key to use or click to create one.Specify an authentication key or click to generate one. This key can be any combination of numbers and letters.
Click to continue.
Remote Network InformationFigure??2.14.??Remote Network Information
- Verify the information on the IPsec ??? Summary page, and then click .
- Select => to save the configuration.
- Select the IPsec connection from the list, and then click to activate the connection.
- Enable IP forwarding:
- Edit
/etc/sysctl.confand setnet.ipv4.ip_forwardto1. - Use the following command to enable the change:
[root at myServer ~]# /sbin/sysctl -p /etc/sysctl.conf
The network script to activate the IPsec connection automatically creates network routes to send packets through the IPsec router if necessary.
- Prev2.7.6.2.??Manual IPsec Host-to-Host Configuration
- Up
- Home
- Next2.7.7.2.??Manual IPsec Network-to-Network Configur...
2.7.8.??Starting and Stopping an IPsec Connection
If the IPsec connection was not configured to activate on boot, you can control it from the command line.
To start the connection, use the following command on each host for host-to-host IPsec, or each IPsec router for network-to-network IPsec:
[root at myServer ~] # /sbin/ifup <nickname>
where
<nickname> is the nickname configured earlier, such as ipsec0.
To stop the connection, use the following command:
[root at myServer ~] # /sbin/ifdown <nickname>
2.7.2.??VPNs and Fedora
Fedora provides various options in terms of implementing a software solution to securely connect to a WAN. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is the supported VPN implementation for Fedora, and sufficiently addresses the usability needs of organizations with branch offices or remote users.
2.7.??Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Organizations with several satellite offices often connect to each other with dedicated lines for efficiency and protection of sensitive data in transit. For example, many businesses use frame relay or Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) lines as an end-to-end networking solution to link one office with others. This can be an expensive proposition, especially for small to medium sized businesses (SMBs) that want to expand without paying the high costs associated with enterprise-level, dedicated digital circuits.
To address this need, Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) were developed. Following the same functional principles as dedicated circuits, VPNs allow for secured digital communication between two parties (or networks), creating a Wide Area Network (WAN) from existing Local Area Networks (LANs). Where it differs from frame relay or ATM is in its transport medium. VPNs transmit over IP using datagrams as the transport layer, making it a secure conduit through the Internet to an intended destination. Most free software VPN implementations incorporate open standard encryption methods to further mask data in transit.
Some organizations employ hardware VPN solutions to augment security, while others use software or protocol-based implementations. Several vendors provide hardware VPN solutions, such as Cisco, Nortel, IBM, and Checkpoint. There is a free software-based VPN solution for Linux called FreeS/Wan that utilizes a standardized Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) implementation. These VPN solutions, irrespective of whether they are hardware or software based, act as specialized routers that exist between the IP connection from one office to another.
2.7.1.??How Does a VPN Work?
When a packet is transmitted from a client, it sends it through the VPN router or gateway, which adds an Authentication Header (AH) for routing and authentication. The data is then encrypted and, finally, enclosed with an Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP). This latter constitutes the decryption and handling instructions.
The receiving VPN router strips the header information, decrypts the data, and routes it to its intended destination (either a workstation or other node on a network). Using a network-to-network connection, the receiving node on the local network receives the packets already decrypted and ready for processing. The encryption/decryption process in a network-to-network VPN connection is transparent to a local node.
With such a heightened level of security, an attacker must not only intercept a packet, but decrypt the packet as well. Intruders who employ a man-in-the-middle attack between a server and client must also have access to at least one of the private keys for authenticating sessions. Because they employ several layers of authentication and encryption, VPNs are a secure and effective means of connecting multiple remote nodes to act as a unified intranet.
1.2.2.??Defining Assessment and Testing
Vulnerability assessments may be broken down into one of two types: Outside looking in and inside looking around.
When performing an outside looking in vulnerability assessment, you are attempting to compromise your systems from the outside. Being external to your company provides you with the cracker's viewpoint. You see what a cracker sees ??? publicly-routable IP addresses, systems on your DMZ, external interfaces of your firewall, and more. DMZ stands for "demilitarized zone", which corresponds to a computer or small subnetwork that sits between a trusted internal network, such as a corporate private LAN, and an untrusted external network, such as the public Internet. Typically, the DMZ contains devices accessible to Internet traffic, such as Web (HTTP ) servers, FTP servers, SMTP (e-mail) servers and DNS servers.
When you perform an inside looking around vulnerability assessment, you are somewhat at an advantage since you are internal and your status is elevated to trusted. This is the viewpoint you and your co-workers have once logged on to your systems. You see print servers, file servers, databases, and other resources.
There are striking distinctions between these two types of vulnerability assessments. Being internal to your company gives you elevated privileges more so than any outsider. Still today in most organizations, security is configured in such a manner as to keep intruders out. Very little is done to secure the internals of the organization (such as departmental firewalls, user-level access controls, authentication procedures for internal resources, and more). Typically, there are many more resources when looking around inside as most systems are internal to a company. Once you set yourself outside of the company, you immediately are given an untrusted status. The systems and resources available to you externally are usually very limited.
Consider the difference between vulnerability assessments and penetration tests. Think of a vulnerability assessment as the first step to a penetration test. The information gleaned from the assessment is used for testing. Whereas the assessment is undertaken to check for holes and potential vulnerabilities, the penetration testing actually attempts to exploit the findings.
Assessing network infrastructure is a dynamic process. Security, both information and physical, is dynamic. Performing an assessment shows an overview, which can turn up false positives and false negatives.
Security administrators are only as good as the tools they use and the knowledge they retain. Take any of the assessment tools currently available, run them against your system, and it is almost a guarantee that there are some false positives. Whether by program fault or user error, the result is the same. The tool may find vulnerabilities which in reality do not exist (false positive); or, even worse, the tool may not find vulnerabilities that actually do exist (false negative).
Now that the difference between a vulnerability assessment and a penetration test is defined, take the findings of the assessment and review them carefully before conducting a penetration test as part of your new best practices approach.
Warning
Attempting to exploit vulnerabilities on production resources can have adverse effects to the productivity and efficiency of your systems and network.
The following list examines some of the benefits to performing vulnerability assessments.
- Creates proactive focus on information security
- Finds potential exploits before crackers find them
- Results in systems being kept up to date and patched
- Promotes growth and aids in developing staff expertise
- Abates financial loss and negative publicity
1.2.2.1.??Establishing a Methodology
To aid in the selection of tools for a vulnerability assessment, it is helpful to establish a vulnerability assessment methodology. Unfortunately, there is no predefined or industry approved methodology at this time; however, common sense and best practices can act as a sufficient guide.
What is the target? Are we looking at one server, or are we looking at our entire network and everything within the network? Are we external or internal to the company? The answers to these questions are important as they help determine not only which tools to select but also the manner in which they are used.
To learn more about establishing methodologies, refer to the following websites:
- http://www.isecom.org/osstmm/ The Open Source Security Testing Methodology Manual (OSSTMM)
- http://www.owasp.org/ The Open Web Application Security Project
1.2.3.??Evaluating the Tools
An assessment can start by using some form of an information gathering tool. When assessing the entire network, map the layout first to find the hosts that are running. Once located, examine each host individually. Focusing on these hosts requires another set of tools. Knowing which tools to use may be the most crucial step in finding vulnerabilities.
Just as in any aspect of everyday life, there are many different tools that perform the same job. This concept applies to performing vulnerability assessments as well. There are tools specific to operating systems, applications, and even networks (based on the protocols used). Some tools are free; others are not. Some tools are intuitive and easy to use, while others are cryptic and poorly documented but have features that other tools do not.
Finding the right tools may be a daunting task and in the end, experience counts. If possible, set up a test lab and try out as many tools as you can, noting the strengths and weaknesses of each. Review the README file or man page for the tool. Additionally, look to the Internet for more information, such as articles, step-by-step guides, or even mailing lists specific to a tool.
The tools discussed below are just a small sampling of the available tools.
1.2.3.1.??Scanning Hosts with Nmap
Nmap is a popular tool included in Fedora that can be used to determine the layout of a network. Nmap has been available for many years and is probably the most often used tool when gathering information. An excellent man page is included that provides a detailed description of its options and usage. Administrators can use Nmap on a network to find host systems and open ports on those systems.
Nmap is a competent first step in vulnerability assessment. You can map out all the hosts within your network and even pass an option that allows Nmap to attempt to identify the operating system running on a particular host. Nmap is a good foundation for establishing a policy of using secure services and stopping unused services.
1.2.3.1.1.??Using Nmap
Nmap can be run from a shell prompt by typing the
nmap command followed by the hostname or IP address of the machine to scan.
nmap foo.example.com
The results of the scan (which could take up to a few minutes, depending on where the host is located) should look similar to the following:
Starting Nmap 4.68 ( http://nmap.org ) Interesting ports on foo.example.com: Not shown: 1710 filtered ports PORT STATE SERVICE 22/tcp open ssh 53/tcp open domain 70/tcp closed gopher 80/tcp open http 113/tcp closed auth
Nmap tests the most common network communication ports for listening or waiting services. This knowledge can be helpful to an administrator who wants to close down unnecessary or unused services.
For more information about using Nmap, refer to the official homepage at the following URL:
1.2.??Vulnerability Assessment
Given time, resources, and motivation, a cracker can break into nearly any system. At the end of the day, all of the security procedures and technologies currently available cannot guarantee that any systems are completely safe from intrusion. Routers help secure gateways to the Internet. Firewalls help secure the edge of the network. Virtual Private Networks safely pass data in an encrypted stream. Intrusion detection systems warn you of malicious activity. However, the success of each of these technologies is dependent upon a number of variables, including:
- The expertise of the staff responsible for configuring, monitoring, and maintaining the technologies.
- The ability to patch and update services and kernels quickly and efficiently.
- The ability of those responsible to keep constant vigilance over the network.
Given the dynamic state of data systems and technologies, securing corporate resources can be quite complex. Due to this complexity, it is often difficult to find expert resources for all of your systems. While it is possible to have personnel knowledgeable in many areas of information security at a high level, it is difficult to retain staff who are experts in more than a few subject areas. This is mainly because each subject area of information security requires constant attention and focus. Information security does not stand still.
1.2.1.??Thinking Like the Enemy
Suppose that you administer an enterprise network. Such networks are commonly comprised of operating systems, applications, servers, network monitors, firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and more. Now imagine trying to keep current with each of these. Given the complexity of today's software and networking environments, exploits and bugs are a certainty. Keeping current with patches and updates for an entire network can prove to be a daunting task in a large organization with heterogeneous systems.
Combine the expertise requirements with the task of keeping current, and it is inevitable that adverse incidents occur, systems are breached, data is corrupted, and service is interrupted.
To augment security technologies and aid in protecting systems, networks, and data, you must think like a cracker and gauge the security of your systems by checking for weaknesses. Preventative vulnerability assessments against your own systems and network resources can reveal potential issues that can be addressed before a cracker exploits it.
A vulnerability assessment is an internal audit of your network and system security; the results of which indicate the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of your network (as explained in Section??1.1.1.3, ???Standardizing Security???). Typically, vulnerability assessment starts with a reconnaissance phase, during which important data regarding the target systems and resources is gathered. This phase leads to the system readiness phase, whereby the target is essentially checked for all known vulnerabilities. The readiness phase culminates in the reporting phase, where the findings are classified into categories of high, medium, and low risk; and methods for improving the security (or mitigating the risk of vulnerability) of the target are discussed.
If you were to perform a vulnerability assessment of your home, you would likely check each door to your home to see if they are closed and locked. You would also check every window, making sure that they closed completely and latch correctly. This same concept applies to systems, networks, and electronic data. Malicious users are the thieves and vandals of your data. Focus on their tools, mentality, and motivations, and you can then react swiftly to their actions.
2.5.4.3.??Altering xinetd Configuration Files
A range of directives is available for services protected by
xinetd. This section highlights some of the more commonly used options.
2.5.4.3.1.??Logging Options
The following logging options are available for both
/etc/xinetd.conf and the service-specific configuration files within the /etc/xinetd.d/ directory.
The following is a list of some of the more commonly used logging options:
ATTEMPT??? Logs the fact that a failed attempt was made (log_on_failure).DURATION??? Logs the length of time the service is used by a remote system (log_on_success).EXIT??? Logs the exit status or termination signal of the service (log_on_success).HOST??? Logs the remote host's IP address (log_on_failureandlog_on_success).PID??? Logs the process ID of the server receiving the request (log_on_success).USERID??? Logs the remote user using the method defined in RFC 1413 for all multi-threaded stream services (log_on_failureandlog_on_success).
For a complete list of logging options, refer to the
xinetd.conf man page.
2.5.4.2.??The /etc/xinetd.d/ Directory
The
/etc/xinetd.d/ directory contains the configuration files for each service managed by xinetd and the names of the files correlate to the service. As with xinetd.conf, this directory is read only when the xinetd service is started. For any changes to take effect, the administrator must restart the xinetd service.
The format of files in the
/etc/xinetd.d/ directory use the same conventions as /etc/xinetd.conf. The primary reason the configuration for each service is stored in a separate file is to make customization easier and less likely to affect other services.
To gain an understanding of how these files are structured, consider the
/etc/xinetd.d/krb5-telnet file:
service telnet
{
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/kerberos/sbin/telnetd
log_on_failure += USERID
disable = yes
}
These lines control various aspects of the
telnet service:
service??? Specifies the service name, usually one of those listed in the/etc/servicesfile.flags??? Sets any of a number of attributes for the connection.REUSEinstructsxinetdto reuse the socket for a Telnet connection.Note
TheREUSEflag is deprecated. All services now implicitly use theREUSEflag.socket_type??? Sets the network socket type tostream.wait??? Specifies whether the service is single-threaded (yes) or multi-threaded (no).user??? Specifies which user ID the process runs under.server??? Specifies which binary executable to launch.log_on_failure??? Specifies logging parameters forlog_on_failurein addition to those already defined inxinetd.conf.disable??? Specifies whether the service is disabled (yes) or enabled (no).
Refer to the
xinetd.conf man page for more information about these options and their usage.
fedora 11
security-guide
A Guide to Securing Fedora Linux
Edition 1.0
Legal Notice
Copyright ?? 2008 Red Hat, Inc. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstract
The Linux Security Guide is designed to assist users of Linux in
learning the processes and practices of securing workstations and
servers against local and remote intrusion, exploitation, and
malicious activity. The Linux Security Guide details the planning
and the tools involved in creating a secured computing environment
for the data center, workplace, and home. With proper
administrative knowledge, vigilance, and tools, systems running
Linux can be both fully functional and secured from most common
intrusion and exploit methods.
- Preface
- 1. Security Overview
- 2. Securing Your Network
- 2.1. Wo rkstation Security
- 2.2. Server Security
- 2.3. Single Sign-on (SSO)
- 2.4. Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)
- 2.5. TCP Wrappers and xinetd
- 2.6. Kerberos
- 2.6.1. What is Kerberos?
- 2.6.2. Kerberos Terminology
- 2.6.3. How Kerberos Works
- 2.6.4. Kerberos and PAM
- 2.6.5. Configuring a Kerberos 5 Server
- 2.6.6. Configuring a Kerberos 5 Client
- 2.6.7. Domain-to-Realm Mapping
- 2.6.8. Setting Up Secondary KDCs
- 2.6.9. Setting Up Cross Realm Authentication
- 2.6.10. Additional Resources
- 2.7. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
- 2.8. Firewalls
- 2.9. IPTables
- 3. Encryption
- 4. General Principles of Information Security
- 5. Secure Installation
- 6. Software Maintenance
- 7. References
Preface
1.??Document Conventions
This manual uses several conventions to highlight certain words and phrases and draw attention to specific pieces of information.
In PDF and paper editions, this manual uses typefaces drawn from the Liberation Fonts set. The Liberation Fonts set is also used in HTML editions if the set is installed on your system. If not, alternative but equivalent typefaces are displayed. Note: Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and later includes the Liberation Fonts set by default.
1.1.??Typographic Conventions
Four typographic conventions are used to call attention to specific words and phrases. These conventions, and the circumstances they apply to, are as follows.
Mono-spaced Bold
Used to highlight system input, including shell commands, file names and paths. Also used to highlight key caps and key-combinations. For example:
To see the contents of the filemy_next_bestselling_novelin your current working directory, enter thecat my_next_bestselling_novelcommand at the shell prompt and press Enter to execute the command.
The above includes a file name, a shell command and a key cap, all presented in Mono-spaced Bold and all distinguishable thanks to context.
Key-combinations can be distinguished from key caps by the hyphen connecting each part of a key-combination. For example:
Press Enter to execute the command.Press Ctrl+Alt+F1 to switch to the first virtual terminal. Press Ctrl+Alt+F7 to return to your X-Windows session.
The first sentence highlights the particular key cap to press. The second highlights two sets of three key caps, each set pressed simultaneously.
If source code is discussed, class names, methods, functions, variable names and returned values mentioned within a paragraph will be presented as above, in
Mono-spaced Bold. For example:
File-related classes includefilesystemfor file systems,filefor files, anddirfor directories. Each class has its own associated set of permissions.
Proportional Bold
This denotes words or phrases encountered on a system, including application names; dialogue box text; labelled buttons; check-box and radio button labels; menu titles and sub-menu titles. For example:
Choose from the main menu bar to launch Mouse Preferences. In the Buttons tab, click the Left-handed mouse check box and click to switch the primary mouse button from the left to the right (making the mouse suitable for use in the left hand).To insert a special character into a gedit file, choose from the main menu bar. Next, choose from the Character Map menu bar, type the name of the character in the Search field and click . The character you sought will be highlighted in the Character Table. Double-click this highlighted character to place it in the Text to copy field and then click the button. Now switch back to your document and choose from the < span class="application">gedit menu bar.
The above text includes application names; system-wide menu names and items; application-specific menu names; and buttons and text found within a GUI interface, all presented in Proportional Bold and all distinguishable by context.
Note the shorthand used to indicate traversal through a menu and its sub-menus. This is to avoid the difficult-to-follow 'Select from the sub-menu in the menu of the main menu bar' approach.
Mono-spaced Bold ItalicProportional Bold Italic
Whether Mono-spaced Bold or Proportional Bold, the addition of Italics indicates replaceable or variable text. Italics denotes text you do not input literally or displayed text that changes depending on circumstance. For example:
To connect to a remote machine using ssh, typesshat a shell prompt. If the remote machine isusername@domain.nameexample.comand your username on that machine is john, typessh john at example.com.Themount -o remountcommand remounts the named file system. For example, to remount thefile-system/homefile system, the command ismount -o remount /home.To see the version of a currently installed package, use therpm -qcommand. It will return a result as follows:package.package-version-release
Note the words in bold italics above ??? username, domain.name, file-system, package, version and release. Each word is a placeholder, either for text you enter when issuing a command or for text displayed by the system.
Aside from standard usage for presenting the title of a work, italics denotes the first use of a new and important term. For example:
When the Apache HTTP Server accepts requests, it dispatches child processes or threads to handle them. This group of child processes or threads is known as a server-pool. Under Apache HTTP Server 2.0, the responsibility for creating and maintaining these server-pools has been abstracted to a group of modules called Multi-Processing Modules (MPMs). Unlike other modules, only one module from the MPM group can be loaded by the Apache HTTP Server.
1.2.??Pull-quote Conventions
Two, commonly multi-line, data types are set off visually from the surrounding text.
Output sent to a terminal is set in
Mono-spaced Roman and presented thus:
books Desktop documentation drafts mss photos stuff svn books_tests Desktop1 downloads images notes scripts svgs
Source-code listings are also set in
Mono-spaced Roman but are presented and highlighted as follows:
package org.jboss.book.jca.ex1;
import javax.naming.InitialContext;
public class ExClient
{
public static void main(String args[])
throws Exception
{
InitialContext iniCtx = new InitialContext();
Object ref = iniCtx.lookup("EchoBean");
EchoHome home = (EchoHome) ref;
Echo echo = home.create();
System.out.println("Created Echo");
System.out.println("Echo.echo('Hello') = " + echo.echo("Hello"));
}
}
1.3.??Notes and Warnings
Finally, we use three visual styles to draw attention to information that might otherwise be overlooked.
Note
A Note is a tip or shortcut or alternative approach to the task at hand. Ignoring a note should have no negative consequences, but you might miss out on a trick that makes your life easier.
Important
Important boxes detail things that are easily missed: configuration changes that only apply to the current session, or services that need restarting before an update will apply. Ignoring Important boxes won't cause data loss but may cause irritation and frustration.
Warning
A Warning should not be ignored. Ignoring warnings will most likely cause data loss.
2.??We Need Feedback!
More information about the Linux Security Guide project can be found at https://fedorahosted.org/securityguide
To provide feedback for the Security Guide, please file a bug in https://bugzilla.redhat.com/enter_bug.cgi?component=security-guide&product=Fedora%20Documentation. Please select the proper component in the dropdown menu which should be the page name.
Chapter??1.??Security Overview
Because of the increased reliance on powerful, networked computers to help run businesses and keep track of our personal information, entire industries have been formed around the practice of network and computer security. Enterprises have solicited the knowledge and skills of security experts to properly audit systems and tailor solutions to fit the operating requirements of the organization. Because most organizations are increasingly dynamic in nature, with workers accessing company IT resources locally and remotely, the need for secure computing environments has become more pronounced.
Unfortunately, most organizations (as well as individual users) regard security as an afterthought, a process that is overlooked in favor of increased power, productivity, and budgetary concerns. Proper security implementation is often enacted postmortem ??? after an unauthorized intrusion has already occurred. Security experts agree that taking the correct measures prior to connecting a site to an untrusted network, such as the Internet, is an effective means of thwarting most attempts at intrusion.
1.1.??Introduction to Security
1.1.1.??What is Computer Security?
Computer security is a general term that covers a wide area of computing and information processing. Industries that depend on computer systems and networks to conduct daily business transactions and access crucial information regard their data as an important part of their overall assets. Several terms and metrics have entered our daily business vocabulary, such as total cost of ownership (TCO) and quality of service (QoS). Using these metrics, industries can calculate aspects such as data integrity and high-availability as part of their planning and process management costs. In some industries, such as electronic commerce, the availability and trustworthiness of data can be the difference between success and failure.
1.1.1.1.??How did Computer Security Come about?
Information security has evolved over the years due to the increasing reliance on public networks not to disclose personal, financial, and other restricted information. There are numerous instances such as the Mitnick [1]and the Vladimir Levin [2]cases that prompted organizations across all industries to re-think the way they handle information, as well as its transmission and disclosure. The popularity of the Internet was one of the most important developments that prompted an intensified effort in data security.
An ever-growing number of people are using their personal computers to gain access to the resources that the Internet has to offer. From research and information retrieval to electronic mail and commerce transaction, the Internet has been regarded as one of the most important developments of the 20th century.
The Internet and its earlier protocols, however, were developed as a trust-based system. That is, the Internet Protocol was not designed to be secure in itself. There are no approved security standards built into the TCP/IP communications stack, leaving it open to potentially malicious users and processes across the network. Modern developments have made Internet communication more secure, but there are still several incidents that gain national attention and alert us to the fact that nothing is completely safe.
1.1.1.2.??Security Today
In February of 2000, a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack was unleashed on several of the most heavily-trafficked sites on the Internet. The attack rendered yahoo.com, cnn.com, amazon.com, fbi.gov, and several other sites completely unreachable to normal users, as it tied up routers for several hours with large-byte ICMP packet transfers, also called a ping flood. The attack was brought on by unknown assailants using specially created, widely available programs that scanned vulnerable network servers, installed client applications called trojans on the servers, and timed an attack with every infected server flooding the victim sites and rendering them unavailable. Many blame the attack on fundamental flaws in the way routers and the protocols used are structured to accept all incoming data, no matter where or for what purpose the packets are sent.
In 2007, a data breach exploiting the widely-known weaknesses of the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) wireless encryption protocol resulted in the theft from a global financial institution of over 45 million credit card numbers.[3]
In a separate incident, the billing records of over 2.2 million patients stored on a backup tape were stolen from the front seat of a courier's car.[4]
Currently, an estimated 1.4 billion people use or have used the Internet worldwide.[5] At the same time:
- On any given day, there are approximately 225 major incidences of security breach reported to the CERT Coordination Center at Carnegie Mellon University.[6]
- In 2003, the number of CERT reported incidences jumped to 137,529 from 82,094 in 2002 and from 52,658 in 2001.[7]
- The worldwide economic impact of the three most dangerous Internet Viruses of the last three years was estimated at US$13.2 Billion.[8]
From a 2008 global survey of business and technology executives "The Global State of Information Security"[9], undertaken by CIO Magazine, some points are:
- Just 43% of respondents audit or monitor user compliance with security policies
- Only 22% keep an inventory of the outside companies that use their data
- The source of nearly half of security incidents was marked as "Unknown"
- 44% of respondents plan to increase security spending in the next year
- 59% have an information security strategy
These results enforce the reality that computer security has become a quantifiable and justifiable expense for IT budgets. Organizations that require data integrity and high availability elicit the skills of system administrators, developers, and engineers to ensure 24x7 reliability of their systems, services, and information. Falling victim to malicious users, processes, or coordinated attacks is a direct threat to the success of the organization.
Unfortunately, system and network security can be a difficult proposition, requiring an intricate knowledge of how an organization regards, uses, manipulates, and transmits its information. Understanding the way an organization (and the people that make up the organization) conducts business is paramount to implementing a proper security plan.
1.1.1.3.??Standardizing Security
Enterprises in every industry rely on regulations and rules that are set by standards-making bodies such as the American Medical Association (AMA) or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The same ideals hold true for information security. Many security consultants and vendors agree upon the standard security model known as CIA, or Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. This three-tiered model is a generally accepted component to assessing risks of sensitive information and establishing security policy. The following describes the CIA model in further detail:
- Confidentiality ??? Sensitive information must be available only to a set of pre-defined individuals. Unauthorized transmission and usage of information should be restricted. For example, confidentiality of information ensures that a customer's personal or financial information is not obtained by an unauthorized individual for malicious purposes such as identity theft or credit fraud.
- Integrity ??? Information should not be altered in ways that render it incomplete or incorrect. Unauthorized users should be restricted from the ability to modify or destroy sensitive information.
- Availability ??? Information should be accessible to authorized users any time that it is needed. Availability is a warranty that information can be obtained with an agreed-upon frequency and timeliness. This is often measured in terms of percentages and agreed to formally in Service Level Agreements (SLAs) used by network service providers and their enterprise clients.
1.1.2.??SELinux
Fedora includes an enhancement to the Linux kernel called SELinux, which implements a Mandatory Access Control (MAC) architecture that provides a fine-grained level of control over files, processes, users and applications in the system. Detailed discussion of SELinux is beyond the scope of this document; however, for more information on SELinux and its use in Fedora, refer to the Fedora SELinux User Guide available at http://docs.fedoraproject.org/selinux-user-guide/. Other available resources for SELinux are listed in Chapter??7, References.
1.1.3.??Security Controls
Computer security is often divided into three distinct master categories, commonly referred to as controls:
- Physical
- Technical
- Administrative
These three broad categories define the main objectives of proper security implementation. Within these controls are sub-categories that further detail the controls and how to implement them.
1.1.3.1.??Physical Controls
Physical control is the implementation of security measures in a defined structure used to deter or prevent unauthorized access to sensitive material. Examples of physical controls are:
- Closed-circuit surveillance cameras
- Motion or thermal alarm systems
- Security guards
- Picture IDs
- Locked and dead-bolted steel doors
- Biometrics (includes fingerprint, voice, face, iris, handwriting, and other automated methods used to recognize individuals)
1.1.3.2.??Technical Controls
Technical controls use technology as a basis for controlling the access and usage of sensitive data throughout a physical structure and over a network. Technical controls are far-reaching in scope and encompass such technologies as:
- Encryption [...3828 lines suppressed...] LUKS - Linux Unified Key Setup
3.8.??7-Zip Encrypted Archives
7-Zip is a cross-platform, next generation, file compression tool that can also use strong encryption (AES-256) to protect the contents of the archive. This is extremely useful when you need to move data between multiple computers that use varying operating systems (i.e. Linux at home, Windows at work) and you want a portable encryption solution.
3.8.1.??7-Zip Installation in Fedora
7-Zip is not a base package in Fedora, but it is available in the software repository. Once installed, the package will update alongside the rest of the software on the computer with no special attention necessary.
3.8.2.??Step-by-Step Installation Instructions
- Open a Terminal:
Click ''Applications'' -> ''System Tools'' -> ''Terminal'' - Install 7-Zip with sudo access:
sudo yum install p7zip - Close the Terminal:
exit
3.8.3.??Step-by-Step Usage Instructions
By following these instructions you are going to compress and encrypt your "Documents" directory. Your original "Documents" directory will remain unaltered. This technique can be applied to any directory or file you have access to on the filesystem.
- Open a Terminal:
Click ''Applications'' -> ''System Tools'' -> ''Terminal'' - Compress and Encrypt: (enter a password when prompted)
7za a -mhe=on -ms=on -p Documents.7z Documents/
The "Documents" directory is now compressed and encrypted. The following instructions will move the encrypted archive somewhere new and then extract it.
- Create a new directory:
mkdir newplace - Move the encrypted file:
mv Documents.7z newplace - Go to the new directory:
cd newplace - Extract the file: (enter the password when prompted)
7za x Documents.7z
The archive is now extracted into the new location. The following instructions will clean up all the prior steps and restore your computer to its previous state.
- Go up a directory:
cd .. - Delete the test archive and test extraction:
rm -r newplace - Close the Terminal:
exit
3.8.4.??Things of note
7-Zip is not shipped by default with Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X. If you need to use your 7-Zip files on those platforms you will need to install the appropriate version of 7-Zip on those computers. See the 7-Zip download page.
GNOME's File Roller application will recognize your .7z files and attempt to open them, but it will fail with the error "''An error occurred while loading the archive.''" when it attempts to do so. This is because File Roller does not currently support the extraction of encrypted 7-Zip files. A bug report ([http://bugzilla.gnome.org/show_bug.cgi?id=490732 Gnome Bug 490732]) has been submitted.
3.9.??Using GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG)
GPG is used to identify yourself and authenticate your communications, including those with people you don't know. GPG allows anyone reading a GPG-signed email to verify its authenticity. In other words, GPG allows someone to be reasonably certain that communications signed by you actually are from you. GPG is useful because it helps prevent third parties from altering code or intercepting conversations and altering the message.
3.9.1.??Creating GPG Keys in GNOME
Install the Seahorse utility, which makes GPG key management easier. From the main menu, select
System > Administration > Add/Remove Software and wait for PackageKit to start. Enter Seahorse into the text box and select the Find. Select the checkbox next to the ''seahorse'' package and select ''Apply'' to add the software. You can also install Seahorse at the command line with the command su -c "yum install seahorse".
To create a key, from the ''Applications > Accessories'' menu select ''Passwords and Encryption Keys'', which starts the application
Seahorse. From the ''Key'' menu select ''Create New Key...'' then ''PGP Key'' then click ''Continue''. Type your full name, email address, and an optional comment describing who are you (e.g.: John C. Smith, jsmith at example.com, The Man). Click ''Create''. A dialog is displayed asking for a passphrase for the key. Choose a strong passphrase but also easy to remember. Click ''OK'' and the key is created.
Warning
If you forget your passphrase, the key cannot be used and any data encrypted using that key will be lost.
To find your GPG key ID, look in the ''Key ID'' column next to the newly created key. In most cases, if you are asked for the key ID, you should prepend "0x" to the key ID, as in "0x6789ABCD". You should make a backup of your private key and store it somewhere secure.
3.9.2.??Creating GPG Keys in KDE
Start the KGpg program from the main menu by selecting Applications > Utilities > Encryption Tool. If you have never used KGpg before, the program walks you through the process of creating your own GPG keypair. A dialog box appears prompting you to create a new key pair. Enter your name, email address, and an optional comment. You can also choose an expiration time for your key, as well as the key strength (number of bits) and algorithms. The next dialog box prompts you for your passphrase. At this point, your key appears in the main
KGpg window.
Warning
If you forget your passphrase, the key cannot be used and any data encrypted using that key will be lost.
To find your GPG key ID, look in the ''Key ID'' column next to the newly created key. In most cases, if you are asked for the key ID, you should prepend "0x" to the key ID, as in "0x6789ABCD". You should make a backup of your private key and store it somewhere secure.
3.9.3.??Creating GPG Keys Using the Command Line
Use the following shell command:
gpg --gen-key
This command generates a key pair that consists of a public and a private key. Other people use your public key to authenticate and/or decrypt your communications. Distribute your public key as widely as possible, especially to people who you know will want to receive authentic communications from you, such as a mailing list. The Fedora Documentation Project, for example, asks participants to include a GPG public key in their self-introduction.
A series of prompts directs you through the process. Press the
Enter key to assign a default value if desired. The first prompt asks you to select what kind of key you prefer:
Please select what kind of key you want: (1) DSA and ElGamal (default) (2) DSA (sign only) (4) RSA (sign only) Your selection? In almost all cases, the default is the correct choice. A DSA/ElGamal key allows you not only to sign communications, but also to encrypt files.
Next, choose the key size: minimum keysize is 768 bits default keysize is 1024 bits highest suggested keysize is 2048 bits What keysize do you want? (1024) Again, the default is sufficient for almost all users, and represents an ''extremely'' strong level of security.
Next, choose when the key will expire. It is a good idea to choose an expiration date instead of using the default, which is ''none.'' If, for example, the email address on the key becomes invalid, an expiration date will remind others to stop using that public key.
Please specify how long the key should be valid. 0 = key does not expire d = key expires in n days w = key expires in n weeks m = key expires in n months y = key expires in n years Key is valid for? (0)
Entering a value of
1y, for example, makes the key valid for one year. (You may change this expiration date after the key is generated, if you change your mind.)
Before the
gpgcode> program asks for signature information, the following prompt appears: Is this correct (y/n)? Enter ycode> to finish the process.
Next, enter your name and email address. Remember this process is about authenticating you as a real individual. For this reason, include your real name. Do not use aliases or handles, since these disguise or obfuscate your identity.
Enter your real email address for your GPG key. If you choose a bogus email address, it will be more difficult for others to find your public key. This makes authenticating your communications difficult. If you are using this GPG key for [[DocsProject/SelfIntroduction| self-introduction]] on a mailing list, for example, enter the email address you use on that list.
Use the comment field to include aliases or other information. (Some people use different keys for different purposes and identify each key with a comment, such as "Office" or "Open Source Projects.")
At the confirmation prompt, enter the letter O to continue if all entries are correct, or use the other options to fix any problems. Finally, enter a passphrase for your secret key. The
gpg program asks you to enter your passphrase twice to ensure you made no typing errors.
Finally,
gpg generates random data to make your key as unique as possible. Move your mouse, type random keys, or perform other tasks on the system during this step to speed up the process. Once this step is finished, your keys are complete and ready to use:
pub 1024D/1B2AFA1C 2005-03-31 John Q. Doe (Fedora Docs Project) <jqdoe at example.com> Key fingerprint = 117C FE83 22EA B843 3E86 6486 4320 545E 1B2A FA1C sub 1024g/CEA4B22E 2005-03-31 [expires: 2006-03-31]
The key fingerprint is a shorthand "signature" for your key. It allows you to confirm to others that they have received your actual public key without any tampering. You do not need to write this fingerprint down. To display the fingerprint at any time, use this command, substituting your email address:
gpg --fingerprint jqdoe at example.com
Your "GPG key ID" consists of 8 hex digits identifying the public key. In the example above, the GPG key ID is 1B2AFA1C. In most cases, if you are asked for the key ID, you should prepend "0x" to the key ID, as in "0x1B2AFA1C".
Warning
If you forget your passphrase, the key cannot be used and any data encrypted using that key will be lost.
3.9.4.??About Public Key Encryption
Chapter??4.??General Principles of Information Security
The following general principals provide an overview of good security practices:
- encrypt all data transmitted over networks to help prevent man-in-the-middle attacks and eavesdropping. It is important to encrypt authentication information, such as passwords.
- minimize the amount of software installed and running services.
- use security-enhancing software and tools, for example, Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) for Mandatory Access Control (MAC), Netfilter iptables for packet filtering (firewall), and the GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG) for encrypting files.
- if possible, run each network service on a separate system to minimize the risk of one compromised service being used to compromise other services.
- maintain user accounts: create and enforce a strong password policy; delete unused user accounts.
- routinely review system and application logs. By default, security-relevant system logs are written to
/var/log/secureand/var/log/audit/audit.log. Note: sending logs to a dedicated log server helps prevent attackers from easily modifying local logs to avoid detection. - never log in as the root user unless absolutely necessary. It is recommended that administrators use
sudoto execute commands as root when required. Users capable of runningsudoare specified in/etc/sudoers. Use thevisudoutility to edit/etc/sudoers.
4.1.??Tips, Guides, and Tools
The United States' National Security Agency (NSA) provides hardening guides and tips for many different operating systems, to help government agencies, businesses, and individuals secure their systems against attack. The following guides (in PDF format) provide guidance for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5:
The Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) provides documentation, checklists, and tests to help secure your system (Information Assurance Support Environment). The UNIX SECURITY TECHNICAL IMPLEMENTATION GUIDE (PDF) is a very specific guide to UNIX security - an advanced knowledge of UNIX and Linux is recommended before reading this guide.
The DISA UNIX Security Checklist Version 5, Release 1.16 provides a collection of documents and checklists, ranging from the correct ownerships and modes for system files, to patch control.
Also, DISA has made available UNIX SPR scripts that allow administrators to check specific settings on systems. These scripts provide XML-formatted reports listing any known vulnerable settings.
Chapter??5.??Secure Installation
Security begins with the first time you put that CD or DVD into your disk drive to install Fedora. Configuring your system securely from the beginning makes it easier to implement additional security settings later.
5.1.??Disk Partitions
The NSA recommends creating separate partitions for /boot, /, /home, /tmp, and /var/tmp. The reasons for each are different and we will address each partition.
/boot - This partition is the first partition that is read by the system during boot up. The boot loader and kernel images that are used to boot your system into Fedora are stored in this partition. This partition should not be encrypted. If this partition is included in / and that partition is encrypted or otherwise becomes unavailable then your system will not be able to boot.
/home - When user data (/home) is stored in / instead of in a separate partition, the partition can fill up causing the operating system to become unstable. Also, when upgrading your system to the next version of Fedora it is a lot easier when you can keep your data in the /home partition as it will not be overwritten during installation. If the root partition (/) becomes corrupt your data could be lost forever. By using a separate partition there is slightly more protection against data loss. You can also target this partition for frequent backups.
/tmp and /var/tmp - Both the /tmp and the /var/tmp directories are used to store data that doesn't need to be stored for a long period of time. However if a lot of data floods one of these directories it can consume all of your storage space. If this happens and these directories are stored within / then your system could become unstable and crash. For this reason, moving these directories into their own partitions is a good idea.
5.2.??Utilize LUKS Partition Encryption
Since Fedora 9, implementation of Linux Unified Key Setup-on-disk-format(LUKS) encryption has become a lot easier. During the installation process an option to encrypt your partitions will be presented to the user. The user must supply a passphrase that will be the key to unlock the bulk encryption key that will be used to secure the partition's data.
Fedora 8, however, does not have LUKS support built-in; however it is easily implemented. Step-by-step procedures are available that allow the user to implement partition encryption on their Fedora 8 installation.
Chapter??6.??Software Maintenance
Software maintenance is extremely important to maintaining a secure system. It is vital to patch software as soon as it becomes available in order to prevent attackers from using known holes to infiltrate your system.
6.1.??Install Minimal Software
It is best practice to install only the packages you will use because each piece of software on your computer could possibly contain a vulnerability. If you are installing from the DVD media take the opportunity to select exactly what packages you want to install during the installation. When you find you need another package, you can always add it to the system later.
6.2.??Plan and Configure Security Updates
All software contains bugs. Often, these bugs can result in a vulnerability that can expose your system to malicious users. Unpatched systems are a common cause of computer intrusions. You should have a plan to install security patches in a timely manner to close those vulnerabilities so they can not be exploited.
For home users, security updates should be installed as soon as possible. Configuring automatic installation of security updates is one way to avoid having to remember, but does carry a slight risk that something can cause a conflict with your configuration or with other software on the system.
For business or advanced home users, security updates should be tested and schedule for installation. Additional controls will need to be used to protect the system during the time between the patch release and its installation on the system. These controls would depend on the exact vulnerability, but could include additional firewall rules, the use of external firewalls, or changes in software settings.
6.3.??Adjusting Automatic Updates
Fedora is configured to apply all updates on a daily schedule. If you want to change the how your system installs updates you must do so via '''Software Update Preferences'''. You can change the schedule, the type of updates to apply or to notify you of available updates.
In Gnome, you can find controls for your updates at:
System -> Preferences -> System -> Software Updates. In KDE it is located at: Applications -> Settings -> Software Updates.
6.4.??Install Signed Packages from Well Known Repositories
Software packages are published through repositories. All well known repositories support package signing. Package signing uses public key technology to prove that the package that was published by the repository has not been changed since the signature was applied. This provides some protection against installing software that may have been maliciously altered after the package was created but before you downloaded it.
Using too many repositories, untrustworthy repositories, or repositories with unsigned packages has a higher risk of introducing malicious or vulnerable code into your system. Use caution when adding repositories to yum/software update.
Chapter??7.??References
The following references are pointers to additional information that is relevant to SELinux and Fedora but beyond the scope of this guide. Note that due to the rapid development of SELinux, some of this material may only apply to specific releases of Fedora.
Books
- SELinux by Example
- Mayer, MacMillan, and CaplanPrentice Hall, 2007
Tutorials and Help
- Understanding and Customizing the Apache HTTP SELinux Policy
- Tutorials and talks from Russell Coker
- Generic Writing SELinux policy HOWTO
- Red Hat Knowledgebase
General Information
- NSA SELinux main website
- NSA SELinux FAQ
- Fedora SELinux FAQ
- SELinux NSA's Open Source Security Enhanced Linux
Technology
- An Overview of Object Classes and Permissions
- Integrating Flexible Support for Security Policies into the Linux Operating System (a history of Flask implementation in Linux)
- Implementing SELinux as a Linux Security Module
- A Security Policy Configuration for the Security-Enhanced Linux
Community
- Fedora SELinux User Guide
- SELinux community page
- IRC
- irc.freenode.net, #selinux
History
- Quick history of Flask
- Full background on Fluke
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| F11 | Espa??ol (es_ES) | HTML | Single HTML | From sparks at fedoraproject.org Wed Aug 5 22:18:47 2009 From: sparks at fedoraproject.org (Eric Christensen) Date: Wed, 5 Aug 2009 22:18:47 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/security-guide index.php,1.13,1.14 Message-ID: <20090805221847.24FD111C0347@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: sparks Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv18710 Modified Files: index.php Log Message: Fixed link errors. Index: index.php =================================================================== RCS file: /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide/index.php,v retrieving revision 1.13 retrieving revision 1.14 diff -u -r1.13 -r1.14 --- index.php 5 Aug 2009 22:13:02 -0000 1.13 +++ index.php 5 Aug 2009 22:18:16 -0000 1.14 @@ -21,9 +21,9 @@||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| F11 | English (en_US) | -HTML | -HTML-Single | -HTML | +HTML-Single | +||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| F11 | From sparks at fedoraproject.org Wed Aug 5 22:22:21 2009 From: sparks at fedoraproject.org (Eric Christensen) Date: Wed, 5 Aug 2009 22:22:21 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/security-guide/f11 fedora-security-guide-11-en-US-1.0.tgz, 1.1, NONE Message-ID: <20090805222221.29FB311C0347@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: sparks Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide/f11 In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv19688/f11 Removed Files: fedora-security-guide-11-en-US-1.0.tgz Log Message: Removing unneeded branch of f11. --- fedora-security-guide-11-en-US-1.0.tgz DELETED --- From sparks at fedoraproject.org Wed Aug 5 22:22:34 2009 From: sparks at fedoraproject.org (Eric Christensen) Date: Wed, 5 Aug 2009 22:22:34 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US Security_Guide-Encryption-Data_in_Motion-Secure_Shell.html, 1.1, NONE Security_Guide-Encryption-Data_in_Motion-Virtual_Private_Networks.html, 1.1, NONE Security_Guide-Encryption-Data_in_Motion.html, 1.1, NONE Security_Guide-Encryption-Protecting_Data_at_Rest-File_Based_Encryption.html, 1.1, NONE We_Need_Feedback.html, 1.2, NONE chap-Security_Guide-Encryption.html, 1.1, NONE chap-Security_Guide-General_Principles_of_Information_Security.html, 1.1, NONE chap-Security_Guide-References.html, 1.1, NONE chap-Security_Guide-Secure_Installation.html, 1.1, NONE chap-Security_Guide-Securing_Your_Network.html, 1.2, NONE chap-Security_Guide-Security_Overview.html, 1.2, NONE chap-Security_Guide-Software_Maintenance.html, 1.1, NONE index.html, 1.2, NONE pref-Security_Guide-Preface.html, 1.2, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Related_Books.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Related_Documentation.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Useful_Firewall_Websites.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Useful_IP_Tables_Websites.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Useful_Kerberos_Websites.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Useful_PAM_Websites.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Additional_Resources-Useful_TCP_Wrappers_Websites.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Altering_xinetd_Configuration_Files-Access_Control_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Altering_xinetd_Configuration_Files-Binding_and_Redirection_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Altering_xinetd_Configuration_Files-Resource_Management_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Attackers_and_Vulnerabilities-Threats_to_Network_Security.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Attackers_and_Vulnerabilities-Threats_to_Server_Security.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Attackers_and_Vulnerabilities-Threats_to_Workstation_and_Home_PC_Security.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Attackers_and_Vulnerabilities.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Basic_Firewall_Configuration-Activating_the_IPTables_Service.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Basic_Firewall_Configuration-Enabling_and_Disabling_the_Firewall.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Basic_Firewall_Configuration-Other_Ports.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Basic_Firewall_Configuration-Saving_the_Settings.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Basic_Firewall_Configuration-Trusted_Services.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Command_Options_for_IPTables-Command_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Command_Options_for_IPTables-IPTables_Match_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Command_Options_for_IPTables-IPTables_Parameter_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Command_Options_for_IPTables-Listing_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Command_Options_for_IPTables-Target_Options.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Common_Exploits_and_Attacks.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-7_Zip_Encrypted_Archives-Installation-Instructions.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-7_Zip_Encrypted_Archives-Things_of_note.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-7_Zip_Encrypted_Archives-Usage_Instructions.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-7_Zip_Encrypted_Archives.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-Protecting_Data_at_Rest-Full_Disk_Encryption.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-Using_GPG-About_Public_Key_Encryption.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-Using_GPG-Creating_GPG_Keys_in_KDE.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-Using_GPG-Creating_GPG_Keys_in_KDE1.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Encryption-Using_GPG.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Evaluating_the_Tools-Anticipating_Your_Future_Needs.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Evaluating_the_Tools-Nessus.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Evaluating_the_Tools-Nikto.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Evaluating_the_Tools-VLAD_the_Scanner.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-FORWARD_and_NAT_Rules-DMZs_and_IPTables.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-FORWARD_and_NAT_Rules-Prerouting.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-Additional_Resources.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-Basic_Firewall_Configuration.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-Common_IPTables_Filtering.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-FORWARD_and_NAT_Rules.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-IPTables_and_Connection_Tracking.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-IPv6.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-Malicious_Software_and_Spoofed_IP_Addresses.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls-Using_IPTables.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Firewalls.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-IPTables-Additional_Resources.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-IPTables-Command_Options_for_IPTables.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-IPTables-Differences_Between_IPTables_and_IPChains.html, 1.1, NONE 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sect-Security_Guide-Kerberos-How_Kerberos_Works.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Kerberos-Kerberos_Terminology.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Kerberos-Kerberos_and_PAM.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Kerberos-Setting_Up_Cross_Realm_Authentication.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Kerberos-Setting_Up_Secondary_KDCs.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Kerberos.html, 1.2, NONE sect-Security_Guide-LUKS_Disk_Encryption-Links_of_Interest.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-LUKS_Disk_Encryption-Manually_Encrypting_Directories-Step_by_Step_Instructions.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-LUKS_Disk_Encryption-Manually_Encrypting_Directories-What_you_have_just_accomplished.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-LUKS_Disk_Encryption-Manually_Encrypting_Directories.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-LUKS_Disk_Encryption.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Option_Fields-Access_Control.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Option_Fields-Expansions.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Option_Fields-Shell_Commands.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-PAM_Configuration_File_Format-Control_Flag.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-PAM_Configuration_File_Format-Module_Arguments.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-PAM_Configuration_File_Format-Module_Name.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-PAM_and_Administrative_Credential_Caching-Common_pam_timestamp_Directives.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-PAM_and_Device_Ownership-Application_Access.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-Additional_Resources.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-Creating_PAM_Modules.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-PAM_Configuration_File_Format.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-PAM_Configuration_Files.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-PAM_and_Administrative_Credential_Caching.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-PAM_and_Device_Ownership.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM-Sample_PAM_Configuration_Files.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Pluggable_Authentication_Modules_PAM.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Secure_Installation-Utilize_LUKS_Partition_Encryption.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_FTP-Anonymous_Access.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_FTP-Use_TCP_Wrappers_To_Control_Access.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_FTP-User_Accounts.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NFS-Beware_of_Syntax_Errors.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NFS-Do_Not_Use_the_no_root_squash_Option.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NFS-NFS_Firewall_Configuration.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NIS-Assign_Static_Ports_and_Use_iptables_Rules.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NIS-Edit_the_varypsecurenets_File.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NIS-Use_Kerberos_Authentication.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_NIS-Use_a_Password_like_NIS_Domain_Name_and_Hostname.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_Portmap-Protect_portmap_With_iptables.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_Sendmail-Mail_only_Users.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Securing_Sendmail-NFS_and_Sendmail.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Security_Updates.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Securing_FTP.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Securing_NFS.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Securing_NIS.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Securing_Portmap.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Securing_Sendmail.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Securing_the_Apache_HTTP_Server.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security-Verifying_Which_Ports_Are_Listening.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Server_Security.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Single_Sign_on_SSO-Configuring_Firefox_to_use_Kerberos_for_SSO.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Single_Sign_on_SSO-Getting_Started_with_your_new_Smart_Card.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Single_Sign_on_SSO-How_Smart_Card_Enrollment_Works.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Single_Sign_on_SSO-How_Smart_Card_Login_Works.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Single_Sign_on_SSO.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Software_Maintenance-Install_Signed_Packages_from_Well_Known_Repositories.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Software_Maintenance-Plan_and_Configure_Security_Updates-Adjusting_Automatic_Updates.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Software_Maintenance-Plan_and_Configure_Security_Updates.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-TCP_Wrappers_Configuration_Files-Option_Fields.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-TCP_Wrappers_and_xinetd-Additional_Resources.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-TCP_Wrappers_and_xinetd-TCP_Wrappers_Configuration_Files.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-TCP_Wrappers_and_xinetd-xinetd.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-TCP_Wrappers_and_xinetd-xinetd_Configuration_Files.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-TCP_Wrappers_and_xinetd.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Threats_to_Server_Security-Inattentive_Administration.html, 1.2, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Threats_to_Server_Security-Inherently_Insecure_Services.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Threats_to_Server_Security-Unpatched_Services.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Threats_to_Workstation_and_Home_PC_Security-Vulnerable_Client_Applications.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Updating_Packages-Applying_the_Changes.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Updating_Packages-Installing_Signed_Packages.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Updating_Packages-Verifying_Signed_Packages.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Using_IPTables-Basic_Firewall_Policies.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Using_IPTables-Saving_and_Restoring_IPTables_Rules.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-Creating_an_IPsec_Connection.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-IPsec.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-IPsec_Host_to_Host_Configuration.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-IPsec_Installation.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-IPsec_Network_to_Network_Configuration.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-Starting_and_Stopping_an_IPsec_Connection.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-VPNs_and_PROD.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Vulnerability_Assessment-Defining_Assessment_and_Testing.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Vulnerability_Assessment-Evaluating_the_Tools.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-Vulnerability_Assessment.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-xinetd_Configuration_Files-Altering_xinetd_Configuration_Files.html, 1.1, NONE sect-Security_Guide-xinetd_Configuration_Files-The_etcxinetd.d_Directory.html, 1.1, NONE security-guide.pdf, 1.2, NONE Message-ID: <20090805222234.4BBE111C0347@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: sparks Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv19688/f11/en-US Removed Files: Security_Guide-Encryption-Data_in_Motion-Secure_Shell.html Security_Guide-Encryption-Data_in_Motion-Virtual_Private_Networks.html Security_Guide-Encryption-Data_in_Motion.html Security_Guide-Encryption-Protecting_Data_at_Rest-File_Based_Encryption.html We_Need_Feedback.html chap-Security_Guide-Encryption.html chap-Security_Guide-General_Principles_of_Information_Security.html chap-Security_Guide-References.html chap-Security_Guide-Secure_Installation.html chap-Security_Guide-Securing_Your_Network.html chap-Security_Guide-Security_Overview.html 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sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs-VPNs_and_PROD.html DELETED --- --- sect-Security_Guide-Virtual_Private_Networks_VPNs.html DELETED --- --- sect-Security_Guide-Vulnerability_Assessment-Defining_Assessment_and_Testing.html DELETED --- --- sect-Security_Guide-Vulnerability_Assessment-Evaluating_the_Tools.html DELETED --- --- sect-Security_Guide-Vulnerability_Assessment.html DELETED --- --- sect-Security_Guide-xinetd_Configuration_Files-Altering_xinetd_Configuration_Files.html DELETED --- --- sect-Security_Guide-xinetd_Configuration_Files-The_etcxinetd.d_Directory.html DELETED --- --- security-guide.pdf DELETED --- From sparks at fedoraproject.org Wed Aug 5 22:22:34 2009 From: sparks at fedoraproject.org (Eric Christensen) Date: Wed, 5 Aug 2009 22:22:34 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US/Common_Content/css common.css, 1.1, NONE default.css, 1.1, NONE overrides.css, 1.1, NONE Message-ID: <20090805222234.B2F2B11C0347@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: sparks Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US/Common_Content/css In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv19688/f11/en-US/Common_Content/css Removed Files: common.css default.css overrides.css Log Message: Removing unneeded branch of f11. --- common.css DELETED --- --- default.css DELETED --- --- overrides.css DELETED --- From sparks at fedoraproject.org Wed Aug 5 22:22:41 2009 From: sparks at fedoraproject.org (Eric Christensen) Date: Wed, 5 Aug 2009 22:22:41 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US/images SCLogin.png, 1.1, NONE SCLoginEnrollment.png, 1.1, NONE auth-panel.png, 1.1, NONE authicon.png, 1.1, NONE fed-firefox_kerberos_SSO.png, 1.1, NONE fed-firewall_config.png, 1.1, NONE fed-ipsec_host2host.png, 1.1, NONE fed-ipsec_n_to_n_local.png, 1.1, NONE fed-ipsec_n_to_n_remote.png, 1.1, NONE fed-service_config.png, 1.1, NONE fed-user_pass_groups.png, 1.1, NONE fed-user_pass_info.png, 1.1, NONE icon.svg, 1.1, NONE n-t-n-ipsec-diagram.png, 1.1, NONE tcp_wrap_diagram.png, 1.1, NONE Message-ID: <20090805222241.09FAE11C0347@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: sparks Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US/images In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv19688/f11/en-US/images Removed Files: SCLogin.png SCLoginEnrollment.png auth-panel.png authicon.png fed-firefox_kerberos_SSO.png fed-firewall_config.png fed-ipsec_host2host.png fed-ipsec_n_to_n_local.png fed-ipsec_n_to_n_remote.png fed-service_config.png fed-user_pass_groups.png fed-user_pass_info.png icon.svg n-t-n-ipsec-diagram.png tcp_wrap_diagram.png Log Message: Removing unneeded branch of f11. --- icon.svg DELETED --- From sparks at fedoraproject.org Wed Aug 5 22:22:40 2009 From: sparks at fedoraproject.org (Eric Christensen) Date: Wed, 5 Aug 2009 22:22:40 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US/Common_Content/images 1.png, 1.1, NONE 1.svg, 1.1, NONE 10.png, 1.1, NONE 10.svg, 1.1, NONE 11.png, 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important.svg, 1.1, NONE key.png, 1.1, NONE logo.png, 1.1, NONE note.png, 1.1, NONE note.svg, 1.1, NONE shade.png, 1.1, NONE stock-go-back.png, 1.1, NONE stock-go-forward.png, 1.1, NONE stock-go-up.png, 1.1, NONE stock-home.png, 1.1, NONE title_logo.png, 1.1, NONE title_logo.svg, 1.1, NONE warning.png, 1.1, NONE warning.svg, 1.1, NONE watermark-alpha1.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-alpha2.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-beta1.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-beta2.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-blank.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-draft.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-pre-release-candidate.png, 1.1, NONE watermark-release-candidate.png, 1.1, NONE Message-ID: <20090805222240.20EAE11C0347@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: sparks Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/security-guide/f11/en-US/Common_Content/images In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv19688/f11/en-US/Common_Content/images Removed Files: 1.png 1.svg 10.png 10.svg 11.png 11.svg 12.png 12.svg 13.png 13.svg 14.png 14.svg 15.png 15.svg 16.png 16.svg 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| Historia zmian | |||
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9. Keyboard Configuration
U??ywaj??c myszy, wybierz poprawny typ uk??adu (na przyk??ad polski) dla klawiatury, kt??ry chcia??by?? u??ywa?? w trakcie instalacji i po niej (zobacz rysunek poni??ej).
Po dokonaniu wyboru naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
Ekran konfiguracji klawiatury
Rysunek 5. Keyboard Configuration
- Poprzedni8. Language Selection
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny10. Inicjowanie dysku twardego
26. Opinie s?? mile widziane
Je??li znajdziesz b????d typograficzny w tym podr??czniku lub masz pomys?? jak go ulepszy??, skontaktuj si?? z nami. Prosimy wys??a?? raport w Bugzilli: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ w produkcie Fedora Documentation.
Wysy??aj??c raport b????du, upewnij si??, ??e wspomnia??e?? identyfikator podr??cznika: installation-quick-start-guide
Je??li masz sugestie, jak ulepszy?? dokumentacj??, postaraj si?? by?? jak najbardziej szczeg????owy opisuj??c sw??j pomys??. Je??li znalaz??e?? b????d, do????cz numer sekcji i poblisk?? cze???? tekstu, aby??my mogli ??atwo go znale????.
- Poprzedni25. Instalacja zosta??a zako??czona
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pnyA.??Package Group Selection
20. Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia
Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia jest uruchamiane za pierwszym razem, kiedy w????czysz nowy system Fedora. U??yj Narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia, aby skonfigurowa?? system do u??ycia przed zalogowaniem si??.
Ekran powitalny narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 14. Ekran powitalny narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Naci??nij , aby uruchomi?? aplikacj?? Pierwsze uruchomienie.
Fedora 11
Szybki przewodnik po instalacji
Pobieranie i instalowanie Fedory 11 na wi??kszo??ci komputer??w stacjonarnych i laptop??w
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
informacja prawna
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstrakt
Ten dokument pokazuje, jak pobra?? i zainstalowa?? Fedor??. Nie
obejmuje ka??dej mo??liwej sytuacji, ale opisuje kroki dzia??aj??ce w
wi??kszo??ci sytuacji na najcz????ciej u??ywanym sprz??cie.
- 1. Wst??p
- 2. Wymagania
- 3. Pobierz plik obrazu Live CD Fedory
- 4. Nagraj plik obrazu na p??ycie CD
- 5. Uruchom komputer z p??yty CD
- 6. Zaloguj si?? do systemu Fedora Live
- 7. Witaj w Fedorze
- 8. Language Selection
- 9. Keyboard Configuration
- 10. Inicjowanie dysku twardego
- 11. Aktualizowanie istniej??cego systemu
- 12. Konfiguracja sieci
- 13. Wyb??r strefy czasowej
- 14. Ustaw has??o roota
- 15. Ustawienia partycjonowania dysku
- 16. Zapisz zmiany na dysku
- 17. Konfiguracja programu startowego
- 18. Package Group Se lection
- 19. Instalowanie pakiet??w
- 20. Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia
- 21. Umowa licencyjna
- 22. U??ytkownik systemowy
- 23. Data i czas
- 24. Profil sprz??tu
- 25. Instalacja zosta??a zako??czona
- 26. Opinie s?? mile widziane
- A. Package Group Selection
- B. Historia wersji
1. Wst??p
Ten przewodnik pokazuje, jak pobra?? obraz Live CD Fedory 11, nagra?? ten obraz na p??yt?? i u??y?? jej do zainstalowania Fedory 11 na typowym komputerze biurowym lub laptopie. Ten przewodnik nie jest kompletnym opisem procesu instalacji i wszystkich jej opcji ??? aby dowiedzie?? si?? wi??cej, zobacz Przewodnik po instalacji Fedory 11, dost??pny na http://docs.fedoraproject.org/install-guide/f11/.
15. Ustawienia partycjonowania dysku
Na tym ekranie mo??na wybra?? utworzenie domy??lnego uk??adu lub wybranie r??cznego partycjonowania za pomoc?? opcji .
Pierwsze cztery opcje umo??liwiaj?? wykonanie automatycznej instalacji bez potrzeby samodzielnego partycjonowania dysk??w. Je??li nie czujesz si?? na si??ach, ??eby zrobi?? to samodzielnie, zalecane jest nie wybieranie w??asnego uk??adu i pozwolenie programu instalacyjnemu na partycjonowanie.
Automatyczne partycjonowanie.
Rysunek 11. Utw??rz domy??lny uk??ad
Utworzenie domy??lnego uk??adu umo??liwia zachowanie pewnej kontroli nad tym, jakie dane zostan?? usuni??te (je??li w og??le) z systemu. Opcje to:
- U??yj ca??y dysk ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby usun???? wszystkie partycje na dyskach twardych (w tym partycji utworzonych przez inne systemy operacyjne, takie jak partycje VFAT lub NTFS Windows).
Ostrze??enie
Je??li wybierzesz t?? opcj??, wszystkie dane na wybranych dyskach twardych zostan?? usuni??te przez program instalacyjny. Nie wybieraj tej opcji, je??li na dyskach twardych, na kt??rych instalujesz Fedor?? znajduj?? si?? wa??ne informacje. - Zast??p istniej??cy system linuksowy ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby usun???? tylko partycje linuksowe (partycje utworzone przez poprzednie instalacje Linuksa). Inne partycje, kt??re mo??esz posiada?? na dyskach twardych (takie jak partycje VFAT lub FAT32) nie zostan?? usuni??te.
- Zmniejsz istniej??cy system ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby r??cznie zmieni?? rozmiar istniej??cych danych i partycji i zainstalowa?? domy??lny uk??ad Fedory w uwolnionej przestrzeni.
Ostrze??enie
Je??li zmniejszysz partycje, na kt??rych s?? zainstalowane inne systemy operacyjne, mo??na utraci?? mo??liwo???? ich u??ywania. Mimo, ??e ta opcja partycjonowania nie usuwa danych, systemy operacyjne zwykle wymagaj?? troch?? wolnego miejsca na swoich partycjach. Zanim zmienisz rozmiar partycji, na kt??rej znajduje si?? system operacyjny, kt??rego b??dziesz chcia?? jeszcze u??ywa??, dowiedz si?? jak du??o wolnego miejsca musisz zostawi??. - U??yj wolne miejsce ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby zachowa?? obecne dane i partycje, przyjmuj??c, ??e masz wystarczaj??co wolnego miejsca na dyskach twardych.
U??ywaj??c myszy, wybierz dyski pami??ci masowej, na kt??rych chcesz zainstalowa?? Fedor??. Je??li posiadasz dwa lub wi??cej dysk??w, mo??esz wybra??, kt??ry powinien zawiera?? t?? instalacj??, Niewybrane dyski i dane na nich nie zostan?? naruszone.
Naci??nij kiedy wybierzesz, aby kontynuowa??.
19. Instalowanie pakiet??w
W tej chwili nie ma ju?? niczego do zrobienia, dop??ki wszystkie pakiety nie zostan?? zainstalowane. Czas trwania zale??y od ilo??ci pakiet??w, kt??re wybrano i pr??dko??ci komputera.
Po zako??czeniu instalacji wybierz , aby ponownie uruchomi?? komputer. Fedora wysunie wszystkie w??o??one p??yty przed wy????czeniem komputera.
- Poprzedni18. Package Group Selection
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny20. Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia
8. Language Selection
U??ywaj??c myszy wybierz j??zyk do u??ywania w trakcie instalacji (zobacz Rysunek??4, ???Language Selection???).
Wybrany j??zyk b??dzie domy??lnym j??zykiem systemu operacyjnego po instalacji. Wybranie odpowiedniego j??zyka pomaga p????niej tak??e w ustaleniu konfiguracji strefy czasowej. Program instalacyjny spr??buje okre??li?? odpowiedni?? stref?? w oparciu o dane z tego ekranu.
Ekran wyboru j??zyka.
Rysunek 4. Language Selection
Po wybraniu odpowiedniego j??zyka naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
18. Package Group Selection
Je??li instalujesz z obrazu Live Fedory, nie mo??esz wybra?? pakiet??w. Ta metoda instalacji przenosi kopi?? obrazu Live zamiast instalowa?? pakiety z repozytorium. Aby zmieni?? wyb??r pakiet??w zako??cz instalacj??, a nast??pnie u??yj aplikacji Dodaj/usu?? oprogramowanie, aby wprowadzi?? ????dane zmiany.
Je??li instalujesz Fedor?? z p??yty DVD lub zestawu sze??ciu p??yt CD, zobacz Dodatek??A, Package Group Selection, aby pozna?? szczeg????y wyboru pakiet??w.
- Poprzedni17. Konfiguracja programu startowego
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny19. Instalowanie pakiet??w
13. Wyb??r strefy czasowej
Ustaw stref?? czasow?? wybieraj??c miasto najbli??sze fizycznemu po??o??eniu komputera. Naci??nij na mapie, aby przybli??y?? dany obszar geograficzny ??wiata.
W tym momencie dost??pne s?? dwa sposoby wybrania strefy czasowej:
- U??ywaj??c myszy naci??nij na interaktywnej mapie, aby wybra?? okre??lone miasto (reprezentowane przez ??????t?? kropk??). Pojawi si?? czerwony X wskazuj??cy wyb??r.
- Mo??na tak??e przewin???? list?? na dole ekranu, by wybra?? stref?? czasow??. U??ywaj??c myszy naci??nij na po??o??eniu, aby wyr????ni?? sw??j wyb??r.
Ekran konfiguracji strefy czasowej.
Rysunek 9. Konfigurowanie strefy czasowej
Naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
17. Konfiguracja programu startowego
Niekt??re opcje partycjonowania spowoduj?? pojawienie si?? ekranu konfiguracji programu startowego. Je??li nie widzisz tego ekranu, przejd?? do Sekcja??18, ???Package Group Selection???.
GRUB, kt??ry jest domy??lnie instalowany, jest programem startowym o bardzo du??ych mo??liwo??ciach. GRUB mo??e wczytywa?? wiele wolnych system??w operacyjnych, a tak??e systemy w??asno??ciowe za pomoc?? techniki "chain-loading" (mechanizm wczytywania nieobs??ugiwanych system??w operacyjnych, takich jak DOS lub Windows, przez wczytywanie innego programu startowego).
Skonfiguruj, jak chcia??by?? uruchamia?? system.
Rysunek 13. Konfiguracja programu startowego
Je??li na komputerze nie ma innych system??w operacyjnych lub ca??kowicie usuwasz wszystkie inne systemy, program instalacyjny zainstaluje GRUB-a jako program startowy bez ??adnego powiadamiania. W takim przypadku kontynuuj na Sekcja??18, ???Package Group Selection???.
Je??li posiadasz ju?? zainstalowane inne systemy operacyjne, Fedora spr??buje je automatycznie wykry?? i skonfigurowa?? GRUB-a, aby je uruchamia??. Mo??na r??cznie skonfigurowa?? dodatkowe systemy operacyjne, je??li GRUB ich nie wykryje.
Aby doda??, usun???? lub zmieni?? ustawienia wykrytego systemu operacyjnego, u??yj podanych opcji.
- Wybierz , aby do????czy?? dodatkowy system operacyjny w GRUB-ie.Wybierz partycj?? dysku zawieraj??c?? startowy system operacyjny z listy i podaj etykiet?? wpisu. GRUB wy??wietla t?? etykiet?? w swoim menu startowym.
- Aby zmieni?? wpis w menu startowym GRUB-a, wybierz wpis, a nast??pnie .
- Aby usun???? wpis z menu startowego GRUB-a, wybierz wpis, a nast??pnie .
Wybierz Domy??lnie obok preferowanej partycji startowej, aby wybra?? domy??lnie uruchamiany system operacyjny. Nie mo??na przej???? dalej w instalacji, je??li nie zostanie wybrany domy??lny obraz startowy.
- Poprzedni16. Zapisz zmiany na dysku
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny18. Package Group Selection
14. Ustaw has??o roota
Ustawienie konta i has??a roota jest jednym z najwa??niejszych krok??w podczas instalacji. Konto roota jest podobne do konta administratora u??ywanego na komputerach Microsoft Windows. Jest u??ywane do instalowania pakiet??w RPM, aktualizowania ich oraz wykonywania wi??kszo??ci zada?? administracyjnych w systemie. Logowanie si?? jako roota daje ca??kowit?? kontrol?? nad systemem.
Ustawianie has??a roota.
Rysunek 10. Has??o roota
Podaj has??o
roota w polu Has??o roota. Fedora dla bezpiecze??stwa wy??wietla znaki jako gwiazdki. Podaj to samo has??o w polu Potwierd??, aby upewni?? si??, ??e jest poprawne. Kiedy ustawisz has??o roota, naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
- Poprzedni13. Wyb??r strefy czasowej
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny15. Ustawienia partycjonowania dysku
23. Data i czas
Je??li system nie posiada dost??pu do Internetu lub sieciowego serwera czasu, r??cznie ustaw dat?? i czas systemu na tym ekranie. W innym przypadku u??yj serwer??w
NTP (Sieciowego protoko??u czasu), aby zarz??dza?? dok??adno??ci?? zegara. NTP dostarcza s??ug?? synchronizowania czasu komputerom w tej samej sieci. Internet zawiera wiele komputer??w, kt??re oferuj?? publiczne us??ugi NTP.
Ekran daty i czas narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 17. Ekran daty i czas narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
21. Umowa licencyjna
Ten ekran wy??wietla og??lne warunki licencyjne Fedory. Ka??dy pakiet oprogramowania w Fedorze jest rozpowszechniany na warunkach swojej w??asnej licencji. Wszystkie wskaz??wki dotycz??ce licencji w Fedorze znajduj?? si?? na http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Licenses.
Ekran licencji narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 15. Ekran licencji narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Je??li zgadzasz si?? z warunkami licencji, wybierz .
- Poprzedni20. Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny22. U??ytkownik systemowy
22. U??ytkownik systemowy
Utw??rz na tym ekranie konto u??ytkownika dla siebie. Zawsze u??ywaj tego konta, aby zalogowa?? si?? do systemu Fedora, zamiast u??ywa?? konta
roota.
Ekran tworzenia u??ytkownika narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 16. Ekran tworzenia u??ytkownika narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
10. Inicjowanie dysku twardego
Je??li na istniej??cych dyskach twardych nie zostan?? znalezione ??adne czytelne tablice partycji, program instalacyjny za????da zainicjowania dysku twardego. Te dzia??anie spowoduje, ??e wszystkie istniej??ce dane na dysku twardym b??d?? nieczytelne. Je??li system posiada zupe??nie nowy dysk twardy bez zainstalowanego ??adnego systemu operacyjne lub usuni??to z niego wszystkie partycje, naci??nij .
Ekran ostrze??enia ??? inicjowanie dysku twardego.
Rysunek 6. Ekran ostrze??enia ??? inicjowanie dysku twardego
- Poprzedni9. Keyboard Configuration
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny11. Aktualizowanie istniej??cego systemu
12. Konfiguracja sieci
Narz??dzie ustawie?? poprosi o podanie nazwy komputera i nazwy domeny w formacie
nazwakomputera.nazwadomeny. Wi??kszo???? sieci posiada us??ug?? DHCP (Protok???? dynamicznej konfiguracji komputera), kt??ra automatycznie dostarcza pod????czonym systemom nazw?? domeny, pozostawiaj??c u??ytkownikowi podanie nazwy komputera.
Je??li nie posiadasz specyficznych wymaga?? co do dostosowania nazwy komputera i domeny, domy??lne ustawienie
localhost.localdomain jest dobrym wyborem dla wi??kszo??ci u??ytkownik??w.
Ustawianie nazwy komputera
Rysunek 8. Ustawianie nazwy komputera
- Poprzedni11. Aktualizowanie istniej??cego systemu
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny13. Wyb??r strefy czasowej
24. Profil sprz??tu
Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia wy??wietla ekran, kt??ry umo??liwia anonimowe wys??anie informacji o sprz??cie do Projektu Fedora. Programi??ci u??ywaj?? tych szczeg??????w na temat sprz??tu, aby umo??liwi?? dalsze wsparcie. Mo??na przeczyta?? wi??cej o tym projekcie i jego rozwoju na http://smolts.org/.
Ekran profilu sprz??tu narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 18. Ekran profilu sprz??tu narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Aby do????czy?? do tej wa??nej pracy, wybierz Wy??lij profil. Je??li nie wybierzesz wys??ania ??adnych danych profilu, nie zmieniaj domy??lnego wyboru. Wybierz Zako??cz, aby przej???? do ekranu logowania.
- Poprzedni23. Data i czas
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny25. Instalacja zosta??a zako??czona
11. Aktualizowanie istniej??cego systemu
Je??li system zawiera instalacj?? Fedory lub Red Hat Linuksa, pojawi si?? okno dialogowe z pytaniem, czy zaktualizowa?? t?? instalacj??. Aby przeprowadzi?? aktualizacj?? istniej??cego systemu, wybierz go z listy i naci??nij .
Ekran aktualizacji.
Rysunek 7. Ekran aktualizacji
- Poprzedni10. Inicjowanie dysku twardego
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny12. Konfiguracja sieci
7. Witaj w Fedorze
Ekran Powitania nie wymaga ??adnego dzia??ania.
Witaj w Fedorze 11
Naci??nij przycisk , aby kontynuowa??.
- Poprzedni6. Zaloguj si?? do systemu Fedora Live
- Pocz??tek rozdzia??u
- Spis tre??ci
- Nast??pny8. Language Selection
Fedora 11
Szybki przewodnik po instalacji
Pobieranie i instalowanie Fedory 11 na wi??kszo??ci komputer??w stacjonarnych i laptop??w
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
informacja prawna
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstrakt
Ten dokument pokazuje, jak pobra?? i zainstalowa?? Fedor??. Nie
obejmuje ka??dej mo??liwej sytuacji, ale opisuje kroki dzia??aj??ce w
wi??kszo??ci sytuacji na najcz????ciej u??ywanym sprz??cie.
- 1. Wst??p
- 2. Wymagania
- 3. Pobierz plik obrazu Live CD Fedory
- 4. Nagraj plik obrazu na p??ycie CD
- 5. Uruchom komputer z p??yty CD
- 6. Zaloguj si?? do systemu Fedora Live
- 7. Witaj w Fedorze
- 8. Language Selection
- 9. Keyboard Configuration
- 10. Inicjowanie dysku twardego
- 11. Aktualizowanie istniej??cego systemu
- 12. Konfiguracja sieci
- 13. Wyb??r strefy czasowej
- 14. Ustaw has??o roota
- 15. Ustawienia partycjonowania dysku
- 16. Zapisz zmiany na dysku
- 17. Konfiguracja programu startowego
- 18. Package Group Selection
- 19. Instalowanie pakiet??w
- 20. Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia
- 21. Umowa licencyjna
- 22. U??ytkownik systemowy
- 23. Data i czas
- 24. Profil sprz??tu
- 25. Instalacja zosta??a zako??czona
- 26. Opinie s?? mile widziane
- A. Package Group Selection
- B. Historia wersji
1. Wst??p
Ten przewodnik pokazuje, jak pobra?? obraz Live CD Fedory 11, nagra?? ten obraz na p??yt?? i u??y?? jej do zainstalowania Fedory 11 na typowym komputerze biurowym lub laptopie. Ten przewodnik nie jest kompletnym opisem procesu instalacji i wszystkich jej opcji ??? aby dowiedzie?? si?? wi??cej, zobacz Przewodnik po instalacji Fedory 11, dost??pny na http://docs.fedoraproject.org/install-guide/f11/.
2. Wymagania
Aby utworzy?? Live CD Fedory, potrzebujesz:
- szerokopasmowe po????czenie z Internetem.
- komputer z nagrywark?? p??yt CD lub DVD.
- oprogramowane umo??liwiaj??ce tworzenie p??yt CD z pliku obrazu.
- czyst??, nagrywaln?? p??yt?? CD.
Je??li nie masz szybkiego po????czenia z Internetem lub masz problem z tworzeniem no??nik??w startowych, pobieranie mo??e nie by?? mo??liwe. No??niki dystrybucji CD i DVD Fedory s?? dost??pne z wielu ??r??de?? online na ca??ym ??wiecie za minimaln?? cen??. U??yj swojej ulubionej wyszukiwarki WWW, aby znale???? producenta, lub odwied?? http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Distribution.
Komputer, na kt??rym chcesz zainstalowa?? Fedor?? 11 z Live CD powinien posiada??:
Te specyfikacje przedstawiaj?? podstawowe minimum, aby u??ywa?? Fedory w trybie graficznym. Prawie ka??dy laptop lub komputer biurowy wyprodukowany w czasie ostatnich dziesi??ciu lat spe??nia te wymagania. Aby dowiedzie?? si?? wi??cej o wymaganiach sprz??towych Fedory 11, zobacz Informacje o wydaniu Fedory 11, dost??pne na http://docs.fedoraproject.org/release-notes/f11/pl-PL/.
- nap??d CD lub DVD i mo??liwo???? uruchamiania z tego nap??du.
- procesor 400 MHz lub szybszy
- co najmniej 256 MB pami??ci (RAM)
- co najmniej 10 GB miejsca na dysku twardym.
Je??li komputer nie posiada nap??du CD lub DVD, albo nie ma mo??liwo??ci uruchamiania z niego, mo??na zainstalowa?? Fedor?? z urz??dzenia pami??ci USB, takiego jak no??nik USB typu flash. Zobacz stron?? liveusb-creator na https://fedorahosted.org/liveusb-creator/, aby dowiedzie?? si?? wi??cej.
Posiadasz ju?? Fedor?? 11 na p??ycie CD, DVD lub no??niku USB?
Je??li posiadasz ju?? Fedor?? 11 na no??niku CD, DVD lub Live USB, mo??esz dalej u??ywa?? tego przewodnika, poniewa?? wiele krok??w b??dzie podobnych. Przejd?? od razu do Sekcja??5, ???Uruchom komputer z p??yty CD???, a nast??pnie
- kontynuuj wykonywanie instrukcji w kolejno??ci, je??li posiadasz Fedor?? 11 na Live CD lub urz??dzeniu Live USB.
- przejd?? od razu do Sekcja??7, ???Witaj w Fedorze???, je??li posiadasz Fedor?? 11 na p??ycie DVD lub zestawie sze??ciu p??yt CD.
3. Pobierz plik obrazu Live CD Fedory
Plik obrazu Live CD Fedory 11 jest dost??pny z http://download.fedoraproject.org/pub/fedora/linux/releases/11/Live/i686/Fedora-11-i686-Live.iso. Pobierz i zapisz ten plik na komputerze.
4. Nagraj plik obrazu na p??ycie CD
Dok??adny proces tworzenia p??yty CD z pliku obrazu znacznie r????ni si?? w zale??no??ci od komputera, systemu operacyjnego i zainstalowanego oprogramowania do nagrywania p??yt. U??yj tej procedury jako og??lnego przewodnika. Mo??esz omin???? niekt??re kroki na swoim komputerze lub wykona?? je w innej kolejno??ci od opisanej poni??ej.
Upewnij si??, ??e oprogramowanie do nagrywania p??yt ma mo??liwo???? nagrywania p??yt z plik??w obraz??w. Mimo, ??e tak jest z wi??kszo??ci?? oprogramowania, istniej?? wyj??tki.
W szczeg??lno??ci zwr???? uwag??, ??e funkcja nagrywania p??yt CD wbudowana w Windows XP w Windows Vista nie mo??e nagrywa?? p??yt CD z obraz??w, a wcze??niejsze systemy operacyjne Windows domy??lnie nie posiadaj?? ??adnych mo??liwo??ci nagrywania p??yt CD. W zwi??zku z tym, je??li komputer posiada zainstalowany system operacyjny Windows, potrzebujesz oddzielnego oprogramowania do tego zadania. Przyk??ady popularnego oprogramowania do nagrywania p??yt CD dla Windows, kt??re mo??esz ju?? posiada?? na komputerze to Nero Burning ROM i Roxio Creator. Je??li u??ywasz systemu operacyjnego Windows i nie posiadasz zainstalowanego oprogramowania do nagrywania p??yt CD (lub nie jeste?? pewny, czy oprogramowanie mo??e nagrywa?? p??yty z plik??w obraz??w), InfraRecorder jest odpowiedni?? alternatyw??, dost??pn?? z http://www.infrarecorder.org/, oraz jest wolna i otwarta.
Oprogramowanie Narz??dzie do obs??ugi dysk??w domy??lnie zainstalowane w Mac OS??X na komputerach Apple posiada ju?? wbudowan?? mo??liwo???? nagrywania p??yt CD z obraz??w. Wi??kszo???? szeroko u??ywanego oprogramowania do nagrywania p??yt CD dla Linuksa, takie jak Brasero i K3b, tak??e maj?? tak?? mo??liwo????.
- Umie???? czyst??, zapisywaln?? p??yt?? CD do nagrywarki CD lub DVD komputera. Na niekt??rych komputerach po umieszczeniu p??yty otworzy si?? okno i wy??wietli r????ne opcje. Je??li zobaczysz takie okno, poszukaj opcji uruchomienia wybranego programu do nagrywania. Je??li nie zobaczysz takiej opcji, zamknij okno i r??cznie uruchom program.
- Uruchom program do nagrywania p??yt. Na niekt??rych komputerach mo??na to zrobi?? przez naci??ni??cie prawym przyciskiem (lub klawiszem Control) na pliku obrazu i wybieraniu opcji menu z etykiet?? tak?? jak Skopiuj obraz na p??yt?? CD lub Skopiuj obraz CD lub DVD. Inne komputery mog?? dostarcza?? opcj?? menu uruchomienia wybranego programu do nagrywania p??yt, bezpo??rednio lub za pomoc?? opcji takiej jak . Je??li ??adna z tych opcji nie jest dost??pna na komputerze, uruchom program za pomoc?? ikony na pulpicie lub w menu aplikacji, takiej jak menu w systemach operacyjnych Windows lub w folderze
AplikacjeMaca. - W programie do nagrywania p??yt wybierz opcj?? nagrywania p??yty Cd z pliku obrazu. Na przyk??ad w Nero Burning ROM ta opcja nazywa si?? i jest po??o??ona w menu .Zauwa??, ??e mo??na pomin???? ten krok u??ywaj??c cz????ci oprogramowania do nagrywania p??yt CD, na przyk??ad Narz??dzie do obs??ugi dysk??w w Mac OS??X go nie wymaga.
- Znajd?? plik obrazu Live CD Fedory, kt??ry poprzednio pobra??e?? i wybierz go do nagrania.
- Naci??nij przycisk, kt??ry rozpoczyna proces nagrywania.
Sprawd?? p??yt?? CD
Po zako??czeniu procesu nagrywania, przejd?? do p??yty CD i sprawd?? jej zawarto????. Je??li poprawnie nagrano p??yt??, powinna zawiera?? liczne pliki i foldery, w tym
GPL, README, LiveOS, EFI i isolinux. Je??li widzisz tylko jeden plik o nazwie Fedora-11-i686-Live.iso, nagrano sam plik obrazu na p??yt?? CD, zamiast nagrania p??yty CD z pliku obrazu. W takim przypadku nie mo??esz u??yj tej p??yty i musisz spr??bowa?? ponownie.
5. Uruchom komputer z p??yty CD
W????cz komputer, w?????? p??yt?? Live CD Fedory 11 do nap??du CD lub DVD i uruchom go ponownie z t?? p??yt?? w nap??dzie. W najlepszym przypadku powiniene?? zobaczy?? ekran startowy Fedory i dziesi??ciosekundowe odliczanie:
Ekran startowy wy??wietla licznik.
Rysunek 1. Ekran startowy Live CD Fedory
Je??li nie widzisz tego ekranu, musisz r??cznie wybra?? opcj??, aby uruchomi?? komputer z p??yty CD. W????cz komputer i przyjrzyj si?? pocz??tkowemu ekranowi BIOS-u. Zaczekaj na tekst, kt??ry wska??e klawisz, jakiego powiniene?? u??y??, aby przej???? do:
- menu startowego lub
- narz??dzia ustawiania BIOS-u
Najlepiej jest, je??li pojawi si?? menu startowe. Je??li taki tekst si?? nie pojawi, mo??esz poszuka?? w??a??ciwych klawiszy w dokumentacji komputera lub p??yty g????wnej. W wielu systemach wymagany klawisz to F12, F2, F1 lub Delete.
6. Zaloguj si?? do systemu Fedora Live
Po dziesi??ciosekundowym odliczaniu komputer wczyta system Live Fedory i przedstawi ekran logowania:
Ekran logowania systemu Live Fedory. Pasek menu zawieraj??cy menu j??zyka i uk??adu klawiatury pojawia si?? na dole. Okno dialogowe na ??rodku ekranu zawiera przycisk .
Rysunek 2. Ekran logowania systemu Fedora Live
- Naci??nij na menu na szarym pasku na dole ekranu, aby wybra?? j??zyk i uk??ad klawiatury.
- Naci??nij przycisk . Zostanie wczytany pulpit systemu Live Fedory.
Pulpit systemu Live Fedory sk??ada si?? z pask??w menu na g??rze i dole ekranu plus ikony na pulpicie. Naci??nij dwa razy na ikon?? o nazwie Zainstaluj na dysku twardym, aby uruchomi?? program instalacyjny.
Pulpit systemu Live Fedory. Znajduj?? si?? na nim paski menu na g??rze i dole ekranu oraz ikony Komputer, Katalog u??ytkownika liveuser, Kosz i Zainstaluj na dysku twardym na samym pulpicie.
Rysunek 3. Pulpit systemu Fedora Live
7. Witaj w Fedorze
Ekran Powitania nie wymaga ??adnego dzia??ania.
Witaj w Fedorze 11
Naci??nij przycisk , aby kontynuowa??.
8. Language Selection
U??ywaj??c myszy wybierz j??zyk do u??ywania w trakcie instalacji (zobacz Rysunek??4, ???Language Selection???).
Wybrany j??zyk b??dzie domy??lnym j??zykiem systemu operacyjnego po instalacji. Wybranie odpowiedniego j??zyka pomaga p????niej tak??e w ustaleniu konfiguracji strefy czasowej. Program instalacyjny spr??buje okre??li?? odpowiedni?? stref?? w oparciu o dane z tego ekranu.
Ekran wyboru j??zyka.
Rysunek 4. Language Selection
Po wybraniu odpowiedniego j??zyka naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
9. Keyboard Configuration
U??ywaj??c myszy, wybierz poprawny typ uk??adu (na przyk??ad polski) dla klawiatury, kt??ry chcia??by?? u??ywa?? w trakcie instalacji i po niej (zobacz rysunek poni??ej).
Po dokonaniu wyboru naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
Ekran konfiguracji klawiatury
Rysunek 5. Keyboard Configuration
10. Inicjowanie dysku twardego
Je??li na istniej??cych dyskach twardych nie zostan?? znalezione ??adne czytelne tablice partycji, program instalacyjny za????da zainicjowania dysku twardego. Te dzia??anie spowoduje, ??e wszystkie istniej??ce dane na dysku twardym b??d?? nieczytelne. Je??li system posiada zupe??nie nowy dysk twardy bez zainstalowanego ??adnego systemu operacyjne lub usuni??to z niego wszystkie partycje, naci??nij .
Ekran ostrze??enia ??? inicjowanie dysku twardego.
Rysunek 6. Ekran ostrze??enia ??? inicjowanie dysku twardego
11. Aktualizowanie istniej??cego systemu
Je??li system zawiera instalacj?? Fedory lub Red Hat Linuksa, pojawi si?? okno dialogowe z pytaniem, czy zaktualizowa?? t?? instalacj??. Aby przeprowadzi?? aktualizacj?? istniej??cego systemu, wybierz go z listy i naci??nij .
Ekran aktualizacji.
Rysunek 7. Ekran aktualizacji
12. Konfiguracja sieci
Narz??dzie ustawie?? poprosi o podanie nazwy komputera i nazwy domeny w formacie
nazwakomputera.nazwadomeny. Wi??kszo???? sieci posiada us??ug?? DHCP (Protok???? dynamicznej konfiguracji komputera), kt??ra automatycznie dostarcza pod????czonym systemom nazw?? domeny, pozostawiaj??c u??ytkownikowi podanie nazwy komputera.
Je??li nie posiadasz specyficznych wymaga?? co do dostosowania nazwy komputera i domeny, domy??lne ustawienie
localhost.localdomain jest dobrym wyborem dla wi??kszo??ci u??ytkownik??w.
Ustawianie nazwy komputera
Rysunek 8. Ustawianie nazwy komputera
13. Wyb??r strefy czasowej
Ustaw stref?? czasow?? wybieraj??c miasto najbli??sze fizycznemu po??o??eniu komputera. Naci??nij na mapie, aby przybli??y?? dany obszar geograficzny ??wiata.
W tym momencie dost??pne s?? dwa sposoby wybrania strefy czasowej:
- U??ywaj??c myszy naci??nij na interaktywnej mapie, aby wybra?? okre??lone miasto (reprezentowane przez ??????t?? kropk??). Pojawi si?? czerwony X wskazuj??cy wyb??r.
- Mo??na tak??e przewin???? list?? na dole ekranu, by wybra?? stref?? czasow??. U??ywaj??c myszy naci??nij na po??o??eniu, aby wyr????ni?? sw??j wyb??r.
Ekran konfiguracji strefy czasowej.
Rysunek 9. Konfigurowanie strefy czasowej
Naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
14. Ustaw has??o roota
Ustawienie konta i has??a roota jest jednym z najwa??niejszych krok??w podczas instalacji. Konto roota jest podobne do konta administratora u??ywanego na komputerach Microsoft Windows. Jest u??ywane do instalowania pakiet??w RPM, aktualizowania ich oraz wykonywania wi??kszo??ci zada?? administracyjnych w systemie. Logowanie si?? jako roota daje ca??kowit?? kontrol?? nad systemem.
Ustawianie has??a roota.
Rysunek 10. Has??o roota
Podaj has??o
roota w polu Has??o roota. Fedora dla bezpiecze??stwa wy??wietla znaki jako gwiazdki. Podaj to samo has??o w polu Potwierd??, aby upewni?? si??, ??e jest poprawne. Kiedy ustawisz has??o roota, naci??nij , aby kontynuowa??.
15. Ustawienia partycjonowania dysku
Na tym ekranie mo??na wybra?? utworzenie domy??lnego uk??adu lub wybranie r??cznego partycjonowania za pomoc?? opcji .
Pierwsze cztery opcje umo??liwiaj?? wykonanie automatycznej instalacji bez potrzeby samodzielnego partycjonowania dysk??w. Je??li nie czujesz si?? na si??ach, ??eby zrobi?? to samodzielnie, zalecane jest nie wybieranie w??asnego uk??adu i pozwolenie programu instalacyjnemu na partycjonowanie.
Automatyczne partycjonowanie.
Rysunek 11. Utw??rz domy??lny uk??ad
Utworzenie domy??lnego uk??adu umo??liwia zachowanie pewnej kontroli nad tym, jakie dane zostan?? usuni??te (je??li w og??le) z systemu. Opcje to:
- U??yj ca??y dysk ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby usun???? wszystkie partycje na dyskach twardych (w tym partycji utworzonych przez inne systemy operacyjne, takie jak partycje VFAT lub NTFS Windows).
Ostrze??enie
Je??li wybierzesz t?? opcj??, wszystkie dane na wybranych dyskach twardych zostan?? usuni??te przez program instalacyjny. Nie wybieraj tej opcji, je??li na dyskach twardych, na kt??rych instalujesz Fedor?? znajduj?? si?? wa??ne informacje. - Zast??p istniej??cy system linuksowy ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby usun???? tylko partycje linuksowe (partycje utworzone przez poprzednie instalacje Linuksa). Inne partycje, kt??re mo??esz posiada?? na dyskach twardych (takie jak partycje VFAT lub FAT32) nie zostan?? usuni??te.
- Zmniejsz istniej??cy system ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby r??cznie zmieni?? rozmiar istniej??cych danych i partycji i zainstalowa?? domy??lny uk??ad Fedory w uwolnionej przestrzeni.
Ostrze??enie
Je??li zmniejszysz partycje, na kt??rych s?? zainstalowane inne systemy operacyjne, mo??na utraci?? mo??liwo???? ich u??ywania. Mimo, ??e ta opcja partycjonowania nie usuwa danych, systemy operacyjne zwykle wymagaj?? troch?? wolnego miejsca na swoich partycjach. Zanim zmienisz rozmiar partycji, na kt??rej znajduje si?? system operacyjny, kt??rego b??dziesz chcia?? jeszcze u??ywa??, dowiedz si?? jak du??o wolnego miejsca musisz zostawi??. - U??yj wolne miejsce ??? wybierz t?? opcj??, aby zachowa?? obecne dane i partycje, przyjmuj??c, ??e masz wystarczaj??co wolnego miejsca na dyskach twardych.
U??ywaj??c myszy, wybierz dyski pami??ci masowej, na kt??rych chcesz zainstalowa?? Fedor??. Je??li posiadasz dwa lub wi??cej dysk??w, mo??esz wybra??, kt??ry powinien zawiera?? t?? instalacj??, Niewybrane dyski i dane na nich nie zostan?? naruszone.
Naci??nij kiedy wybierzesz, aby kontynuowa??.
16. Zapisz zmiany na dysku
Instalator poprosi o potwierdzenie wybranych opcji partycjonowania. Naci??nij , aby umo??liwi?? instalatorowi spartycjonowanie dysku twardego i zainstalowanie Fedory.
Pole dialogowe Zapisywanie konfiguracji pami??ci masowej na dysku umo??liwia wybranie lub .
Rysunek 12. Zapisywanie konfiguracji pami??ci masowej na dysku
Je??li jeste?? pewny, ??e chcesz kontynuowa??, naci??nij .
Ostatnia szansa na bezpieczne anulowanie
Do tej chwili w procesie instalacji instalator nie wprowadzi?? ??adnych ostatecznych zmian na komputerze. Kiedy naci??niesz , instalator przydzieli przestrze?? na dysku twardym i rozpocznie przenoszenie Fedory w to miejsce. W zale??no??ci od wybranych opcji partycjonowania ten proces mo??e zawiera?? usuwanie danych ju?? istniej??cych na komputerze.
Aby jeszcze raz przejrze?? dokonane dotychczas wybory, naci??nij . Aby ca??kowicie anulowa?? instalacj??, wy????cz komputer. Aby wy????czy?? wi??kszo???? komputer??w na tym etapie, nale??y nacisn???? przycisk zasilania i przytrzyma?? go przez kilka sekund.
Po naci??ni??ciu , pozw??l procesowi instalacji si?? zako??czy??. Je??li ten proces zostanie zak????cony (na przyk??ad przez wy????czenie lub ponowne uruchomienie komputera, albo przez przerw?? w zasilaniu), prawdopodobnie nie b??dzie mo??na u??ywa?? komputera, dop??ki nie uruchomi si?? go ponownie i zako??czy proces instalacji Fedory lub zainstaluje inny system operacyjny.
17. Konfiguracja programu startowego
Niekt??re opcje partycjonowania spowoduj?? pojawienie si?? ekranu konfiguracji programu startowego. Je??li nie widzisz tego ekranu, przejd?? do Sekcja??18, ???Package Group Selection???.
GRUB, kt??ry jest domy??lnie instalowany, jest programem startowym o bardzo du??ych mo??liwo??ciach. GRUB mo??e wczytywa?? wiele wolnych system??w operacyjnych, a tak??e systemy w??asno??ciowe za pomoc?? techniki "chain-loading" (mechanizm wczytywania nieobs??ugiwanych system??w operacyjnych, takich jak DOS lub Windows, przez wczytywanie innego programu startowego).
Skonfiguruj, jak chcia??by?? uruchamia?? system.
Rysunek 13. Konfiguracja programu startowego
Je??li na komputerze nie ma innych system??w operacyjnych lub ca??kowicie usuwasz wszystkie inne systemy, program instalacyjny zainstaluje GRUB-a jako program startowy bez ??adnego powiadamiania. W takim przypadku kontynuuj na Sekcja??18, ???Package Group Selection???.
Je??li posiadasz ju?? zainstalowane inne systemy operacyjne, Fedora spr??buje je automatycznie wykry?? i skonfigurowa?? GRUB-a, aby je uruchamia??. Mo??na r??cznie skonfigurowa?? dodatkowe systemy operacyjne, je??li GRUB ich nie wykryje.
Aby doda??, usun???? lub zmieni?? ustawienia wykrytego systemu operacyjnego, u??yj podanych opcji.
- Wybierz , aby do????czy?? dodatkowy system operacyjny w GRUB-ie.Wybierz partycj?? dysku zawieraj??c?? startowy system operacyjny z listy i podaj etykiet?? wpisu. GRUB wy??wietla t?? etykiet?? w swoim menu startowym.
- Aby zmieni?? wpis w menu startowym GRUB-a, wybierz wpis, a nast??pnie .
- Aby usun???? wpis z menu startowego GRUB-a, wybierz wpis, a nast??pnie .
Wybierz Domy??lnie obok preferowanej partycji startowej, aby wybra?? domy??lnie uruchamiany system operacyjny. Nie mo??na przej???? dalej w instalacji, je??li nie zostanie wybrany domy??lny obraz startowy.
18. Package Group Selection
Je??li instalujesz z obrazu Live Fedory, nie mo??esz wybra?? pakiet??w. Ta metoda instalacji przenosi kopi?? obrazu Live zamiast instalowa?? pakiety z repozytorium. Aby zmieni?? wyb??r pakiet??w zako??cz instalacj??, a nast??pnie u??yj aplikacji Dodaj/usu?? oprogramowanie, aby wprowadzi?? ????dane zmiany.
Je??li instalujesz Fedor?? z p??yty DVD lub zestawu sze??ciu p??yt CD, zobacz Dodatek??A, Package Group Selection, aby pozna?? szczeg????y wyboru pakiet??w.
19. Instalowanie pakiet??w
W tej chwili nie ma ju?? niczego do zrobienia, dop??ki wszystkie pakiety nie zostan?? zainstalowane. Czas trwania zale??y od ilo??ci pakiet??w, kt??re wybrano i pr??dko??ci komputera.
Po zako??czeniu instalacji wybierz , aby ponownie uruchomi?? komputer. Fedora wysunie wszystkie w??o??one p??yty przed wy????czeniem komputera.
20. Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia
Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia jest uruchamiane za pierwszym razem, kiedy w????czysz nowy system Fedora. U??yj Narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia, aby skonfigurowa?? system do u??ycia przed zalogowaniem si??.
Ekran powitalny narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 14. Ekran powitalny narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Naci??nij , aby uruchomi?? aplikacj?? Pierwsze uruchomienie.
21. Umowa licencyjna
Ten ekran wy??wietla og??lne warunki licencyjne Fedory. Ka??dy pakiet oprogramowania w Fedorze jest rozpowszechniany na warunkach swojej w??asnej licencji. Wszystkie wskaz??wki dotycz??ce licencji w Fedorze znajduj?? si?? na http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Licenses.
Ekran licencji narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 15. Ekran licencji narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Je??li zgadzasz si?? z warunkami licencji, wybierz .
22. U??ytkownik systemowy
Utw??rz na tym ekranie konto u??ytkownika dla siebie. Zawsze u??ywaj tego konta, aby zalogowa?? si?? do systemu Fedora, zamiast u??ywa?? konta
roota.
Ekran tworzenia u??ytkownika narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 16. Ekran tworzenia u??ytkownika narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
23. Data i czas
Je??li system nie posiada dost??pu do Internetu lub sieciowego serwera czasu, r??cznie ustaw dat?? i czas systemu na tym ekranie. W innym przypadku u??yj serwer??w
NTP (Sieciowego protoko??u czasu), aby zarz??dza?? dok??adno??ci?? zegara. NTP dostarcza s??ug?? synchronizowania czasu komputerom w tej samej sieci. Internet zawiera wiele komputer??w, kt??re oferuj?? publiczne us??ugi NTP.
Ekran daty i czas narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 17. Ekran daty i czas narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
24. Profil sprz??tu
Narz??dzie pierwszego uruchomienia wy??wietla ekran, kt??ry umo??liwia anonimowe wys??anie informacji o sprz??cie do Projektu Fedora. Programi??ci u??ywaj?? tych szczeg??????w na temat sprz??tu, aby umo??liwi?? dalsze wsparcie. Mo??na przeczyta?? wi??cej o tym projekcie i jego rozwoju na http://smolts.org/.
Ekran profilu sprz??tu narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Rysunek 18. Ekran profilu sprz??tu narz??dzia pierwszego uruchomienia
Aby do????czy?? do tej wa??nej pracy, wybierz Wy??lij profil. Je??li nie wybierzesz wys??ania ??adnych danych profilu, nie zmieniaj domy??lnego wyboru. Wybierz Zako??cz, aby przej???? do ekranu logowania.
25. Instalacja zosta??a zako??czona
Fedora jest teraz zainstalowana na komputerze. Zaloguj si?? za pomoc?? nazwy u??ytkownika i has??a, kt??re utworzy??e?? podczas procesu instalacji.
To learn more about Fedora, visit the Fedora Project website at http://fedoraproject.org/. If you need help installing or using Fedora, visit http://fedoraproject.org/en/get-help.
26. Opinie s?? mile widziane
Je??li znajdziesz b????d typograficzny w tym podr??czniku lub masz pomys?? jak go ulepszy??, skontaktuj si?? z nami. Prosimy wys??a?? raport w Bugzilli: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ w produkcie Fedora Documentation.
Wysy??aj??c raport b????du, upewnij si??, ??e wspomnia??e?? identyfikator podr??cznika: installation-quick-start-guide
Je??li masz sugestie, jak ulepszy?? dokumentacj??, postaraj si?? by?? jak najbardziej szczeg????owy opisuj??c sw??j pomys??. Je??li znalaz??e?? b????d, do????cz numer sekcji i poblisk?? cze???? tekstu, aby??my mogli ??atwo go znale????.
A.??Package Group Selection
Tylko p??yta DVD lub zestaw sze??ciu p??yt CD
Ten ekran nie zostanie wy??wietlony podczas instalowania Fedory z Live CD.
Pojawi si?? ekran Domy??lnie instalowane pakiety oraz szczeg????y domy??lnego zestawu pakiet??w dla instalacji Fedory.
Wybierz, kt??re grupy pakiet??w chcesz zainstalowa??.
Rysunek A.1. Package Group Selection
Domy??lnie proces instalacji Fedory wczytuje wyb??r oprogramowania, kt??ry jest odpowiedni dla systemu biurowego. Aby do????czy?? lub usun???? oprogramowanie do cz??stych zda??, wybierz odpowiednie elementy z listy:
- Biuro i praca biurowa
- Ta opcja dostarcza pakiet biurowy OpenOffice.org, aplikacj?? zarz??dzania projektami Planner, narz??dzia graficzne, takie jak GIMP oraz aplikacje multimedialne.
- Rozw??j oprogramowania
- Ta opcja dostarcza narz??dzia niezb??dne do kompilowania oprogramowania w systemie Fedora.
- Serwer WWW
- Ta opcja dostarcza serwer WWW Apache.
Aby dostosowa?? zestaw oprogramowania, wybierz opcj?? Dostosuj teraz na ekranie. Naci??ni??cie przeniesie na ekran Wyb??r grup pakiet??w.
A.1. Dostosowywanie wyboru oprogramowania
Wybierz dodanie lub usuni??cie opcjonalnych pakiet??w z tej grupy.
Rysunek A.2. Szczeg????y grupy pakiet??w
Fedora rozdziela oprogramowanie na
grupy pakiet??w. Aby u??atwi?? u??ywanie, ekran wyboru pakiet??w wy??wietla te grupy jako kategorie.
Mo??na wybra?? grupy pakiet??w kt??re grupuj?? razem sk??adniki spe??niaj??ce podobne funkcje (na przyk??ad System X Window i Edytory), poszczeg??lne pakiety lub po????czenie tych dw??ch.
Kiedy wybierzesz ????dane pakiety, wybierz Dalej, aby kontynuowa??. Fedora sprawdzi wyb??r i automatycznie doda wszystkie dodatkowe pakiety wymagane, aby u??ywa?? wybranego oprogramowania. Kiedy sko??czysz wybieranie pakiet??w, naci??nij Zamknij, aby zapisa?? wyb??r pakiet??w opcjonalnych i wr??ci?? do g????wnego ekranu wyboru pakiet??w.
B.??Historia wersji
| Historia zmian | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Zmiana 0.1 | Tue Jul 14 2009 | ||
| |||
The Fedora Installation Quick Start Guide is available for the following versions:
Current Releases
-Fedora 11 — US English, Espa??ol, nederlands
+Fedora 11 — US English, Espa??ol, nederlands, polski
--- NEW FILE 10.svg --- --- NEW FILE 11.svg --- --- NEW FILE 12.svg --- --- NEW FILE 13.svg --- --- NEW FILE 14.svg --- --- NEW FILE 15.svg --- --- NEW FILE 16.svg --- --- NEW FILE 17.svg --- --- NEW FILE 18.svg --- --- NEW FILE 19.svg --- --- NEW FILE 2.svg --- --- NEW FILE 20.svg --- --- NEW FILE 21.svg --- --- NEW FILE 22.svg --- --- NEW FILE 23.svg --- --- NEW FILE 3.svg --- --- NEW FILE 4.svg --- --- NEW FILE 5.svg --- --- NEW FILE 6.svg --- --- NEW FILE 7.svg --- --- NEW FILE 8.svg --- --- NEW FILE 9.svg --- --- NEW FILE important.svg --- --- NEW FILE note.svg --- --- NEW FILE title_logo.svg --- --- NEW FILE warning.svg --- From rlandmann at fedoraproject.org Fri Aug 7 14:53:56 2009 From: rlandmann at fedoraproject.org (=?utf-8?q?R=C3=BCdiger_Landmann?=) Date: Fri, 7 Aug 2009 14:53:56 +0000 (UTC) Subject: web/html/docs/readme-burning-isos de-DE.html, NONE, 1.1 en-US.html, NONE, 1.1 es-ES.html, NONE, 1.1 hu-HU.html, NONE, 1.1 nl-NL.html, NONE, 1.1 pl-PL.html, NONE, 1.1 index.php, 1.3, 1.4 Message-ID: <20090807145356.4261411C00D7@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com> Author: rlandmann Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/readme-burning-isos In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv19712 Modified Files: index.php Added Files: de-DE.html en-US.html es-ES.html hu-HU.html nl-NL.html pl-PL.html Log Message: Publicanized versions of de-DE en-US es-ES hu-HU nl-NL pl-PL --- NEW FILE de-DE.html ---Fedora 11
Brennen von ISO-Abbildern auf CD/DVD
Wie ISO-Abbilder heruntergeladen und CD- und DVD-Medien erzeugt werden
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
Rechtlicher Hinweis
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Zusammenfassung
Wie ISO-Abbilder heruntergeladen und CD- und DVD-Medien erzeugt
werden
1. Einleitung
Die Fedora-Distribution wird in Form von ISO 9660 Standard-Dateisystem Abbildern bereitgestellt. Sie k??nnen diese ISO-Abbilder auf jede CD-ROM oder DVD kopieren und eine bootf??hige CD/DVD erstellen.
Bevor Sie Fedora auf einem Computer installieren k??nnen, m??ssen zun??chst die ISO-Dateien auf ein leeres CD-R/RW oder DVD-R/RW Medium geschrieben, werden. Dieses Dokument beschreibt, wie diese Dateien mit Hilfe einiger h??ufig benutzter Werkzeuge gebrannt werden. Dieses Dokument nimmt an, dass Sie keine Erfahrung mit Linux haben und Sie Microsoft Windows benutzen, um die Dateien herunterzuladen und zu brennen
Das Fedora-Projekt unterst??tzt nur Software, welche ein Teil der Fedora-Distribution ist
Nur Software, welche produziert und verteilt wird mit Fedora, wird von diesem Projekt unterst??tzt. Andere Software in diesem Artikel wird nur erw??hnt, um den Benutzer in die richtige Richtung zu lenken. Fedora ist nicht verantwortlich f??r diese Software-Pakete noch werden sie bevorzugt und ihre Benutzung ist hier nur als Nutzen f??r den Leser beschrieben. Dieser Artikel hat nicht zum Ziel ein dienliche Anleitung zum Schreiben von ISO-Abildern unter allen Betriebssystemen zu sein.
2. Herunterladen
Die ISO-Dateien sind sehr gross und der Download kann sehr lange dauern, besonders bei langsamen Verbindungen. Sie sollten deshalb einen Download-Manager benutzen
2.1. Zwischen CD und DVD w??hlen
Fedora ist als CD-Variante auf mehreren CD ISO-Dateien oder als DVD-Variante auf einer DVD ISO-Datei erh??ltlich. Sie k??nnen die DVD ISO-Datei verwenden, wenn Ihr Computer folgende Bedingungen erf??llt:
- Er verf??gt ??ber einen DVD-R(W)-Brenner
- Er verf??gt ??ber eine NTFS-Partition mit ausreichend freiem Speicherplatz f??r die Abbild-Datei
Um die DVD ISO-Datei auf eine Disk zu schreiben, ben??tigt Ihr Rechner einen Brenner, der DVD-Medien beschreiben kann. Falls Ihr Brenner ausschliesslich CD-Medien brennen kann, laden Sie sich die CD ISO-Dateien herunter.
Einige Dateisysteme k??nnen Dateien, die gr??sser als 2 GB sind, wie DVD-Abbilder, nicht abspeichern. Das h??ufig verwendete Dateisystem NTFS hat diese Beschr??nkung nicht, allerdings einige nicht NTFS-Formate, wie z.B. FAT32. Um das Format eines Laufwerks wie
C: unter Windows zu ??berpr??fen, w??hlen Sie das Start-Men?? und dort Arbeitsplatz. Klicken Sie mit rechts auf das Laufwerk, das Sie ??berpr??fen wollen und w??hlen Sie Eigenschaften. Der sich ??ffnende Dialog zeigt das Dateisystem an. Falls Sie kein NTFS-Laufwerk mit ausreichend freiem Speicherplatz haben, laden Sie bitte stattdessen die CD-Abbilder herunter.
Erzeugen Sie ein neues Verzeichnis, in das Sie diese Dateien herunterladen k??nnen. Sie ben??tigen ca. 700 MB freien Speicherplatz f??r jede ISO-Datei der CDs oder ca. 3.5 GB f??r die ISO-Datei der DVD. Dieser Text geht davon aus, dass Sie die Dateien unter
C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora abgespeichert haben.
2.2. Die ISO-Dateien ausw??hlen
Welche Dateien Sie genau vom Server ben??tigen, h??ngt von Ihrem System und der Version von Fedora ab, die Sie herunterladen. Die Dateien sind folgendermassen benannt:
Fedora-<version>-<arch>-disc<count>.iso, wobei "<version>" die Version von Fedora ist, die Sie herunterladen wollen, "<arch>" die Prozessor-Architektur Ihres Computers ist und "<count>" die Nummer jeder einzelnen Installations-CD ist.
Die Prozessor-Architektur des Rechners entspricht in der Regel
i386 f??r 32-bit PCs, darunter die Pentium- und Athlon-Prozessorfamilien. F??r 64-bit PCs, wie die Athlon 64-Prozessorfamilie, ist die Architektur normalerweise x86_64 und die Architektur von PowerPC-Rechners, einschliesslich der meisten Apple Mac-Produkte, ist meistens ppc. Im Zweifelsfall sollten Sie die i386-Versionen f??r Ihr System ausw??hlen.
Wenn Sie Fedora 11 beispielsweise f??r einen Pentium 4-Rechner herunterladen, ben??tigen Sie die Datei
Fedora-i386-DVD.iso. Sie ben??tigen zus??tzlich die SHA1SUM-Datei um ??berpr??fen zu k??nnen, ob die heruntergeladenen Dateien vollst??ndig und korrekt sind.
3. ??berpr??fen der Dateien
Selbst wenn ihr Download-Manager keine Fehler anzeigt, k??nnen diese dennoch auftreten. Daher ist es ??usserst wichtig zu ??berpr??fen, ob die Dateien in irgendeiner Form besch??digt wurden. F??r diesen Zweck gibt es die
SHA1SUM Datei. Sie enth??lt eine Zeile mit einem Inhalts??berpr??fungscode, genannt "hash" (Engl., in etwa "Pr??fsumme"), der f??r jede vorhandene ISO Datei aus den Ursprungs-ISO-Dateien berechnet wurde.
Automatische Fehlerpr??fung von BitTorrent
Bittorrent f??hrt diese Fehler??berpr??fung w??hrend des Herunterladens automatisch durch Wenn Ihre Bittorrent-Anwendung anzeigt, dass alle Dateien erfolgreich heruntergeladen wurden, k??nnen Sie diesen Schritt ??berspringen.
3.1. ??berpr??fen in der grafischen Oberfl??che von Windows
Es gibt eine Menge Gratisprodukte zur ??berpr??fung und zum Hashen (Pr??fsummen erstellen) von Dateien die per Maus bedient werden k??nnen. Hier sind Links zu einigen davon:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
Folgen Sie den Anweisungen zur Installation des Programms. Wenn Sie das Programm ausf??hren, benutzen Sie die bereit gestellten Werkzeuge zur Auswahl der heruntergeladenen ISO-Dateien. W??hlen Sie dann den SHA-1 Algorithmus f??r die Berechnung und f??hren das Programm aus. Das Programm wird einige Zeit brauchen, da es die gesamte ISO-Datei einlesen muss.
??ffnen Sie die Datei
SHA1SUM mit einem Texteditor, beispielsweise Notepad, um ihren Inhalt anzuzeigen. Vergewissern Sie sich, dass die vom Hash-Progamm angezeigten Hashes f??r jede der herunter geladenen ISO-Dateien mit den jeweiligen Hashes in der Datei SHA1SUM exakt ??bereinstimmen.
Wenn alle Hashes stimmen, k??nnen Sie die ISO-Dateien brennen. Falls es bei einer Datei zu einer Abweichung kommt, sollten Sie sie erneut herunterladen.
GEW??HRLEISTUNGSAUSSCHLUSS
Das Fedora-Projekt und Red Hat Inc. haben keinen Einfluss auf externe Seiten, wie die oben genannten oder die von ihnen angebotenen Programme.
3.2. ??berpr??fen in der Eingabeaufforderung von Windows
Um die Dateien mit der Eingabeaufforderung zu ??berpr??fen, m??ssen Sie das Programm
sha1sum.exe herunter laden. F??r weitere Anweisungen und einen Verweis zum Herunterladen des Programms klicken Sie bitte http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html.
Das Programm
sha1sum.exe berechnet und zeigt Hashes an. Um es zu benutzen, speichern Sie es im selben Verzeichnis wie die ISO Dateien ab. W??hlen Sie Ausf??hren... aus dem "Start" Men?? und geben dann cmd ein, um das Konsolen Fenster aufzurufen. Wechseln Sie dann in das Verzeichnis der herunter geladenen Dateien. F??hren Sie sha1sum f??r jede ISO-Datei aus:
cd "C:\Dokumente und Einstellungen\Besitzer\Eigene Dateien\Eigene Downloads\Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-i386-DVD.iso
Das Programm ben??tigt einige Zeit, da es die komplette ISO-Datei lesen muss.
??ffnen Sie die Datei
SHA1SUM mit einem Texteditor, beispielsweise Notepad, um ihren Inhalt anzuzeigen. Vergewissern Sie sich, dass die vom Hash-Progamm angezeigten Hashes f??r jede der herunter geladenen ISO-Dateien mit den jeweiligen Hashes in der Datei SHA1SUM exakt ??bereinstimmen.
Wenn alle Hashes stimmen, k??nnen Sie die ISO-Dateien brennen. Falls es bei einer Datei zu einer Abweichung kommt, sollten Sie sie erneut herunterladen.
4. Brennen
Vielen Windows Benutzern sind die genauen Vorg??nge des CD-Brennens nicht vollst??ndig bekannt, da viele Windows-Programme den Nutzer einfach die Quell-Dateien in ein Fenster ziehen lassen und nach einem Klick auf den Brennen Knopf die Daten auf CD gebrannt werden.
In Wirklichkeit f??hrt die Brennsoftware aber zwei Operationen durch. Zun??chst erstellt sie ein ISO 9660 Standard-Abbild des Verzeichnisbaums der Quelldateien, so wie sie in das Fenster gezogen wurden. Genauso werden auch die Fedora Installationsabbilder angelegt.Daraufhin transferiert die Brennsoftware das ISO-Abbild auf die leere CD. Falls die urspr??ngliche Quelldatei bereits ein Image war, ist die damit gebrannte CD nicht f??r eine Installation brauchbar.
Um die Fedora-Installations-CDs zu erstellen ist es ??usserst wichtig, nur den zweiten Schritt f??r die Fedora ISO-Dateien auszuf??hren. Die hierf??r notwendigen Schritte unter Zuhilfenahme einiger popul??rer CD-Brenn-Programme sind unten aufgef??hrt.
CDs und DVDs brennen unter Fedora
Informationen dar??ber, wie Fedora-Medien zu brennen sind, finden Sie unter https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media.
4.1. Benutzen des ISO Recorder V2 Power Toy
Besorgen und installieren Sie sich den ISO Recorder von dieser Adresse: http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm.
- Im Dateimanager Explorer auf die erste Fedora-ISO-Datei rechtsklicken.
- W??hlen Sie im Kontextmen?? Abbild auf CD kopieren.
- Folgen Sie den im Pop-Up-Fenster CD Recording Wizard aufgelisteten Schritten.
- Wiederholen Sie die Schritte f??r jede der verbleibenden ISO-Dateien.
4.2. Benutzung des Roxio Easy Media Creator 7
- Starten Sie .
- W??hlen Sie Anderer Task.
- W??hlen Sie .
- W??hlen Sie die Fedora-ISO-Datei und brennen Sie sie.
4.3. Benutzung von Nero Burning ROM 5
- Starten Sie das Programm.
- ??ffnen Sie das Men?? .
- W??hlen Sie das .
- W??hlen Sie die Fedora-ISO-Datei und brennen Sie sie.
- Wiederholen Sie obige Schritte f??r jede der anderen ISO-Dateien
4.4. Benutzung von Nero Express 6
- Starten Sie das Programm.
- W??hlen Sie .
- Ein -Dialog erscheint. W??hlen Sie die erste Fedora ISO Datei. Klicken Sie auf .
- Stellen Sie die Schreibgeschwindigkeit Ihres Brennger??tes ein. Die optimale Einstellung h??ngt von der betreffenden Hardware ab.
- Klicken Sie Weiter, um den Brennvorgang zu starten.
- Wiederholen Sie vorherigen Schritte mit den restlichen ISO-Dateien.
5. ??berpr??fen der Medien
Um sicherzustellen, dass die CDs auf Ihrem System funktionieren, sollten Sie nur Disc 1 brennen und dann die folgenden Schritte durchf??hren, bevor Sie die anderen CDs brennen.
- Stellen Sie mit Hilfe der Anleitung Ihres Computerherstellers sicher, dass das BIOS Ihres Computers so eingestellt ist, dass es vom CD-Laufwerk bootet.
- Starten Sie den Rechner mit der Fedora-Disc im CD-Laufwerk neu. Das Start-Men?? des Fedora-Installationsprogramms erscheint.
- Dr??cken Sie Enter.
- Folgen Sie den Anweisungen auf dem Bildschirm bis Sie gefragt werden, ob Sie eine Medien??berpr??fung durchf??hren m??chten.
- F??hren Sie die Pr??fung der CD durch. Ist die Pr??fung erfolgreich, dann ist Ihre CD korrekt. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt hat das Installationsprogramm nichts an ihrem Rechner ge??ndert. Entfernen Sie die Fedora-Installations-CD und starten Sie ihr System neu.
- Bevor Sie mit dem Schreiben von anderen Medien fortfahren, ??berpr??fen Sie vor der Installation mit der ersten Disc, welche schon gepr??ft wurde, dass die anderen in Ordnung sind.
6. Wir freuen uns auf Ihr Feedback!
Wenn Sie einen Fehler in diesem Handbuch finden oder eine Idee haben, wie dieses verbessert werden k??nnte, freuen wir uns ??ber Ihr Feedback! Reichen Sie einen Fehlerbericht f??r die Komponente Fedora. in Bugzilla unter http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ ein.
Vergewissern Sie sich beim Einreichen eines Fehlerberichts die Kennung des Handbuchs mit anzugeben: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc
Falls Sie uns einen Vorschlag zur Verbesserung der Dokumentation senden m??chten, sollten Sie hierzu m??glichst genaue Angaben machen. Wenn Sie einen Fehler gefunden haben, geben Sie bitte die Nummer des Abschnitts und einen Ausschnitt des Textes an, damit wir diesen leicht finden k??nnen.
A.??Revisionsverlauf
| Versionsgeschichte | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Version 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
| |||
| Version 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
| |||
Fedora 11
Burning ISO images to disc
How to download ISO images and create CD and DVD media
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
Legal Notice
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstract
How to download ISO images and create CD and DVD media
1.??Introduction
The Fedora distribution is provided in the form of ISO 9660 standard filesystem images. You can copy these ISO images onto either CDROM or DVD media to produce a bootable disc.
Before you can install Fedora from disc on a computer, you must transfer, or burn, the ISO files to blank disc media (CD-R/RW or DVD-R/RW). This document describes the procedure for burning these files using a few common tools. This document assumes that you have no experience with Linux, and that you are using Microsoft Windows for the purpose of downloading and burning the files.
The Fedora Project only supports software that is part of the Fedora distribution
Only software produced and shipped as part of Fedora is supported by the project. Other software mentioned in this article is intended to guide the user in the right direction. Fedora is not responsible for nor endorses those software packages, and their use is described here merely as a convenience for the reader. This is not intended to be a comprehensive guide to burning ISOs under every operating system.
2.??Downloading
The ISO files are large, and it may take a long time to download them, especially using a dial-up modem. You may want to use a download manager.
2.1.??Choosing CD or DVD
Fedora is distributed on multiple CD-sized ISO image files, or a single DVD-sized ISO image file. You can use the single DVD ISO file if your computer meets the following requirements:
- It has a DVD-writable or DVD-rewritable drive
- It has an NTFS drive with sufficient space to hold the image file
To write the DVD ISO file to a disc, your computer needs to have a drive that can write to DVD media. If your computer has a drive that only writes CD media and not DVD media, download the CD-sized files instead.
Some file systems cannot store files larger than 2 GB, such as the DVD image. The commonly-used NTFS file system does not have this limitation, but many other non-NTFS formats do, such as FAT32. To check the format of a drive under Windows such as
C:, select the Start menu and then My Computer. Right-click the drive you want to check, and choose Properties. The resulting dialog displays the format for that file system. If you do not have an NTFS drive with enough free space, download the CD-sized files instead.
Create a new directory where you can download all of these files. You need approximately 700 MiB of free space available for each CD-sized ISO file, or approximately 3.5 GiB for the DVD-sized ISO file. This document assumes you have downloaded the files to the folder
C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora.
2.2.??Choosing the ISO Files
The exact files you need from the download server depend upon your system and the version of Fedora you are downloading. The files you need are named in the form of
Fedora-<version>-<arch>-disc<count>.iso, where "<version>" is the version of Fedora you wish to download, "<arch>" is your computer's processor architecture, and "<count>" is the disc number for each of the installation CDs. In the case of an installation DVD, DVD is used in the filename.
The computer processor architecture is usually
i386 for 32-bit PCs, including the Pentium and Athlon processor families. The architecture is usually x86_64 for 64-bit PCs, including the Athlon 64 processor family. The architecture is usually ppc for PowerPC computers, including most of Apple's Macintosh offerings before they began using Intel chips in the MacBook. If in doubt, your system probably requires the i386 versions.
For example, if downloading Fedora 11 for a Pentium 4 computer, the correct file is
Fedora-i386-DVD.iso. You may also need the SHA1SUM file to verify that the files you have downloaded are complete and correct.
3.??Validating the Files
Errors can occur during the download, even if your download manager reports none. Therefore it is very important to check that the files have not been corrupted in any way. This is the purpose of the
SHA1SUM file. It contains one line for each of the available ISO files with a content verification code called a hash computed from the original ISO files.
BitTorrent Automatic Error Checking
BitTorrent automatically performs this error checking during downloads. If your BitTorrent application reports all files have been successfully downloaded, you can safely skip this step.
3.1.??Validating in the Windows Graphical Environment
There are a number of no-cost products available for file validation and hashing that have point and click interfaces. Here are links to a few of them:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
Follow the instructions provided to install the program. When you run the program, use the file selection tools provided to select your downloaded ISO image files. Then select the SHA-1 algorithm for calculation, and run the tool. The program takes some time to complete, since it must read the entire ISO file.
Open the file
SHA1SUM with a text editor, such as Notepad, to display its contents. Make sure the hash displayed by the hash tool for each of the downloaded ISO files exactly matches the corresponding hash in the SHA1SUM file.
If all of the hashes match, you can then burn the ISO files to media. If a file does not match, you may have to download it again.
CAVEAT EMPTOR
The Fedora Project and Red Hat, Inc. have no control over external sites such as the ones listed above, or the programs they provide.
3.2.??Validating at the Windows Command Prompt
To check the files using the command prompt, you need to download the program
sha1sum.exe. For instructions and the link to download the program, refer to http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html.
The
sha1sum.exe program computes and displays hashes. To use it, save sha1sum.exe to the same directory as the ISO files. Select Run... from the Start menu and then enter cmd for the name of the program to start a Command Prompt window. Then change into the download directory. Run sha1sum with each ISO file like this:
cd "C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-i386-DVD.iso
The program takes some time to complete, since it must read the entire ISO file.
Open the file
SHA1SUM with a text editor, such as Notepad, to display its contents. Make sure the hash displayed by sha1sum.exe for each of the downloaded ISO files exactly matches the corresponding hash in the SHA1SUM file.
If all of the hashes match, the ISO files can be burned to media. If a file does not match, you may have to download it again.
4.??Burning
The process of burning a CD is not always obvious to the users of Windows. Windows applications often let users burn data discs by simply dragging the source files into a box and clicking the Burn button.
In reality, though, the burning software performs two operations. First, it creates an ISO 9660 standard image, just like the ones used to install Fedora, from the source files that were dragged into the box. Second, it transfers that ISO file onto the blank CD. If the original source file was already an ISO image, the resulting CD is not usable for installation purposes.
To create the Fedora installation discs, it is vital that you only perform the second step with the Fedora ISO files. The steps required to do this using several popular CD burning applications are listed below.
Disc Burning on Fedora
Information on how-to burn media using Fedora is covered in https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media.
4.1.??Using The ISO Recorder V2 Power Toy
Obtain and install the ISO Recorder power toy from the http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm web site.
- In the file manager Explorer, right click on the first Fedora ISO file.
- In the context menu, select Copy image to CD.
- Follow the steps given by the CD Recording Wizard pop-up.
- Repeat for the remaining ISO files.
4.2.??Using Roxio Easy Media Creator 7
- Start Creator Classic.
- Select Other Tasks.
- Select Burn from Disc Image File.
- Choose the Fedora ISO file and burn it.
4.3.??Using Nero Burning ROM 5
- Start the program.
- Open the menu.
- Select .
- Choose the Fedora ISO file and burn it.
- Repeat the above steps for each of the other ISO files.
4.4.??Using Nero Express 6
- Start the program.
- Select Disc Image or Saved Project.
- An Open dialog appears. Select the first Fedora ISO file. Click .
- Set the writing speed for your disc recorder. The optimal setting depends on your specific hardware.
- Click Next to burn.
- Repeat the steps above for the other ISO files.
5.??Testing Your Discs
In order to be certain the CDs will work on your system, you may wish to burn only disc 1 and then perform the following process before burning the others:
- Following the directions from your computer's manufacturer, make sure your computer's BIOS is set to boot from the CD drive.
- Reboot the computer with the Fedora disc in the CD drive. The boot menu for the Fedora installer appears.
- Press Enter.
- Follow the directions on-screen until you are asked if you would like to perform a media check.
- Conduct the check against the disc. If the check succeeds, your disc is correct. At this point the installer has changed nothing on your computer. Remove the Fedora installation disc and restart the system.
- Continue burning any other media and be sure to check them before installation with the first disc that has already been proven good.
6.??We Need Feedback!
If you find a typographical error in this manual, or if you have thought of a way to make this manual better, we would love to hear from you! Please submit a report in Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/
against the product Fedora.
When submitting a bug report, be sure to mention the manual's identifier: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc
If you have a suggestion for improving the documentation, try to be as specific as possible when describing it. If you have found an error, please include the section number and some of the surrounding text so we can find it easily.
A.??Revision History
| Revision History | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Revision 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
| |||
| Revision 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
| |||
Fedora 11
Grabando im??genes ISO en un disco
Como descargar las im??genes ISO y crear CDs y DVDs
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
aviso legal
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Resumen
Como descargar las im??genes ISO y crear CDs y DVDs
1. Introducci??n
La distribuci??n Fedora se provee en la forma de archivos de imagen de sistema de archivo ISO 9660. Puede copiar estas im??genes ISO en un CDROM o DVD para producir un disco de arranque.
Antes de que pueda instalar Fedora desde un disco en una computadora, debe transferir, o quemar, los archivos ISO a discos vac??os (CD-R/RW o DVD-R/RW). Este documento describe el procedimiento para quemar estos archivos usando unas pocas herramientas comunes. Este documento asume que no tiene experiencia con Linux, y que est?? usando Microsoft Windows para el prop??sito de descargar y quemar los archivos.
El Proyecto Fedora solamente da soporte a software que es parte de la distribuci??n Fedora
Solamente el software que se produce y se empaqueta como parte de Fedora es soportado por el proyecto. Otro software mencionado en este art??culo es s??lo para guiar al usuario en la direcci??n correcta. Fedora no es responsable ni endosa esos paquetes, y su uso se describe aqu?? meramente como una conveniencia para el lector. No se pretende dar una gu??a comprensiva de c??mo quemar ISOs bajo cualquier sistema operativo.
2. Descargando
Los archivos ISO son grandes, y puede tomar un tiempo largo para descargarlos, especialmente si se usa un m??dem dial-up. Se podr??a usar un administrador de descargar.
2.1. Elegir CD o DVD
Fedora se distribuye en varios archivos im??genes ISO de tama??o de CD, o del tama??o de un DVD. Puede usar el archivo ISO del DVD si su computadora cumple con los siguientes requisitos:
- Tiene un dispositivo DVD de escritura o de reescritura
- Tiene un disco NTFS con espacio suficiente para contener el archivo de imagen
Para escribir un archivo ISO de DVD a un disco, su computadora necesita tener un dispositivo que escriba en DVDs. Si su computadora s??lo escribe CDs y no DVDs, descargue los ISO del tama??o de CD en su lugar.
Algunos sistemas de archivos no pueden almacenar archivos de m??s de 2 GB, tales como las im??genes de DVD. El sistema de archivo NTFS no tiene esta limitaci??n, pero muchos de los otros formatos si, tales como el FAT32. Para chequear el formato de su disco bajo Windows como
C:, seleccione Inicio y luego Mi PC. Clic con el bot??n derecho sobre el disco del cual quiere ver y elija Propiedades. El di??logo que se muestra informar?? el formato para ese sistema de archivo. Si no tiene un disco NTFS con suficiente espacio, descargue los archivos de tama??o de CD en su lugar.
Debe crear un directorio nuevo en donde descargar los archivos. Necesita aproximadamente 700 MB de espacio libre para cada archivo ISO del tama??o de CD, o aproximadamente 3.5 GB para el archivo ISO de tama??o DVD. Este documento asume que ha descargado los archivos en la carpeta
C:\Documents and Settings\Due??o\Mis Documentos\Mis Descargas\Fedora.
2.2. Eligiendo los Archivos ISO
Los archivos exactos que necesita del servidor de descarga, dependen de su sistema y de la versi??n de Fedora que est?? descargando. Los nombres de estos archivos tienen la forma de
Fedora-<version>-<arch>-disc<count>.iso, donde "<version>" es la versi??n de Fedora que desea descargar, "<arch>" es la arquitectura del procesador de su computadora y "<nro>" es el n??mero de disco de cada CD de instalaci??n. En el caso de una instalaci??n mediante DVD, en el nombre del archivo se utiliza DVD.
La arquitectura del procesador de la computadora, usualmente es
i386 para las PCs de 32-bit, incluyendo las familias de procesadores Pentium y Athlon. La arquitectura normalmente es x86_64 para las PCs de 64-bit, incluyendo la familia de procesadores Athlon 64. La arquitectura normalmente es ppc para las computadoras PowerPC, incluyendo la mayor??a de las Macintosh de Apple existentes en el mercado, antes que comiencen a utilizar chips Intel en sus modelos MacBook. Si tiene alguna duda, su sistema probablemente requiere las versiones i386.
Por ejemplo, si est?? descargando Fedora 11 para una computadora Pentium 4, el archivo correcto es
Fedora-11-i386-DVD.iso. Tambi??n puede necesitar el archivo SHA1SUM para verificar que los archivos que ha descargado est??n completos y correctos.
3. Validaci??n de los Archivos
Pueden haber errores durante la descarga, a??n cuando su administrador de descarga no reporta ninguno. Por lo que es muy importante que chequee que los archivos no han sido corrompidos en alguna forma. Este es el prop??sito del archivo
SHA1SUM. Contiene una l??nea para cada uno de los archivos ISO disponibles con un c??digo de verificaci??n que se llama hash calculado a partir de los archivos ISO originales.
BitTorrent Verifica Errores Autom??ticamente
BitTorrent realiza este chequeo de error autom??ticamente durante la descarga. Si su aplicaci??n BitTorrent informa que todos los archivos han sido descargados exitosamente, puede saltar este paso sin problemas.
3.1. La validaci??n en el Entorno Gr??fico de Windows
Hay un n??mero de productos libres (sin costo) disponibles para la validaci??n de archivos y el hashing que tienen interfases gr??ficas. A continuaci??n la lista de algunos de ellos:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
Siga las instrucciones provistas en el programa de instalaci??n. Cuando ejecute el programa use las herramientas de seleccion de archivo para seleccionar los archivos de imagen ISO descargados. Luego seleccione el algoritmo SHA-1 para el c??lculo y ejecute la herramienta. El programa se toma alg??n tiempo, dado que debe leer todo el archivo ISO.
Abra el archivo
SHA1SUM con un editor de texto, como el Notepad, para ver su contenido. Aseg??rese que el hash mostrado por la herramienta hash para cada uno de los archivos ISO descargados coincidan exactamente con el correspondiente hash en el archivo SHA1SUM.
Si todos los n??meros hash son correctos, puede entonces quemar los archivos ISO en sus discos. Si no es as??, tendr?? que descargarlos de nuevo.
Precauciones
El Proyecto Fedora y Red Hat Inc. no tienen control sobre sitios externos como los indicados reci??en, ni sobre los programas que proveen.
3.2. Validaci??n en la ventana de comandos de Windows
Para verificar los archivos usando la l??nea de comando, necesita descargar el programa
sha1sum.exe. Para instrucciones y enlaces de descarga a este programa, vea a http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html.
El programa
sha1sum.exe calcula y muestra estos hashes. Para usarlo, guarde sha1sum.exe en el mismo directorio que los archivos ISO. Elija Ejecutar... desde el men?? Inicio y luego ingrese cmd como nombre de programa, para iniciar una pantalla negra de S??mbolo del sistema. Luego cambie al directorio de descarga. Ejecute sha1sum con cada archivo ISO as??:
cd "C:\Documents and Settings\Due??o\Mis Documentos\Mis Descargas\Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-11-i386-DVD.iso
El programa se toma alg??n tiempo para completar, dado que debe leer todo el archivo ISO.
Abra el archivo
SHA1SUM con un editor de textos como el Notepad, para mostrar su contenido. Aseg??rese que el hash que muestra sha1sum.exe para cada uno de los archivos ISO descargados sean similares al hash en el archivo SHA1SUM.
Si todos los hashes coinciden, los archivos ISO pueden quemarse en los discos. Si el archivo no concuerda, deber?? descargarlo de nuevo.
4. Quemado
El proceso de quemado de un CD no siempre es obvio para los usuarios de Windows. Las aplicaciones de Windows a menudo permiten a los usuarios quemar discos de datos tan s??lo arrastrando archivos a un cuadro y haciendo clic en el bot??n Grabar .
En realidad, el software de quemado realiza dos operaciones. Primero crea una im??gen est??ndar ISO 9660, tal como las que se usan para instalar Fedora, desde los archivos fuente que se pusieron dentro del cuadro. Segundo, transfiere el archivo ISO a un CD en blanco. Si el archivo fuente original fue una imagen ISO, el CD resultante no podr?? usarse para una instalaci??n.
Para crear los CDs de instalaci??n de Fedora, es vital que s??lo realice el segundo paso con los archivos ISO de Fedora. Los pasos requeridos para hacer esto usando varias aplicaciones de quemado de CD se listan m??s abajo.
Quemado de Disco en Fedora
La informaci??n acerca de c??mo quemar un medio usando Fedora se ofrece en https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media.
4.1. Usando el ISO Recorder V2 Power Toy
Obtenga e instale el "ISO Recorder power toy" del sitio web http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm.
- En el Explorador, haga clic con el bot??n derecho en el primero archivo ISO de Fedora.
- En el men?? contextual seleccione Copiar imagen a CD.
- Seguir los pasos dados por la ventana emergente del Asistente de Grabaci??n de CD.
- Repetir para los archivos ISO restantes.
4.2. Usando Roxio Easy Media Creator 7
- Inicie el "Creador Cl??sico".
- Seleccione Otras Tareas.
- Seleccione Grabar desde un Archivo Imagen.
- Elija el primer archivo ISO de Fedora y qu??melo.
4.3. Usando Nero Burning ROM 5
- Inicie el programa.
- Abra el men?? .
- Seleccione .
- Elija el primer archivo ISO de Fedora y qu??melo.
- Repita los pasos de arriba para cada uno de los archivos ISO restantes.
4.4. Usando Nero Express 6
- Inicie el programa.
- Seleccione Imagen de Disco o Proyecto Guardado.
- Un di??logo de Abrir aparecer??. Seleccione el primer archivo ISO de Fedora. Clic en Abrir.
- Ponga la velocidad de escritura para su grabador de discos. La configuraci??n ??ptima depende de su equipamiento espec??fico.
- Clic en Siguiente para quemar.
- Repita los pasos de arriba para los otros archivos ISO.
5. Probando sus Discos
Para tener certeza de que los CDs funcionar??n en su sistema, puede probar quemar solamente el disco 1 y luego realizar los siguientes procedimientos antes de quemar los restantes:
- Siguiendo las indicaciones del fabricante de su computadora, aseg??rese que el BIOS de su computadora est?? configurado para que pueda iniciar el sistema desde el CDROM.
- Reinicie la computadora con el disco 1 puesto en el CD ROM. Aparecer?? el men?? de arranque del instalador de Fedora.
- Presione Intro.
- Siga las directivas de pantalla hasta que le pregunte si desea realizar un chequeo del medio.
- Realice el chequeo al primer disco. Si termina con ??xito, su disco es correcto. En este punto el instalador no hizo nada en su computadora. Elimine el disco de instalaci??n de Fedora y reinicie el sistema.
- Continue quemando otro medio y aseg??rese de chequearlos antes de instalar con el primero disco que ya haya sido probado como bueno.
6. ??Necesitamos sus comentarios!
Si encuentra un error tipogr??fico en este manual o si sabe de alguna manera de mejorarlo, nos gustar??a escuchar sus sugerencias. Por favor complete un reporte en Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ usando el producto Fedora.
Cuando env??e un reporte de error no olvide mencionar el identificador del manual: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc
Si tiene una sugerencia para mejorar la documentaci??n, intente ser tan espec??fico como sea posible cuando describa su sugerencia. Si ha encontrado un error, por favor incluya el n??mero de secci??n y parte del texto que rodea el error para que podamos encontrarlo m??s f??cilmente.
A.??Historial de revisiones
| Historial de revisiones | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Revisi??n 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
| |||
| Revisi??n 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
| |||
Fedora 11
ISO k??pek lemezre p??rk??l??se
Hogyan t??lts??nk le ISO k??peket, illetve csin??ljunk CD ??s DVD adathordoz??kat
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
jogi k??zlem??ny
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Kivonat
Hogyan t??lts??nk le ISO k??peket, illetve csin??ljunk CD ??s DVD
adathordoz??kat
1. Bevezet??
A Fedora terjeszt??st ISO 9660 szabv??ny?? f??jlrendszer k??pek alakj??ban biztos??tj??k. Ezeket az ISO k??peket lem??solhatj??k CD vagy DVD adathordoz??kra, hogy rendszerind??t?? lemezeket csin??ljanak.
Miel??tt lemezr??l telep??ten??k Fedor??t egy sz??m??t??g??pre, ??t kell vinni ??? p??rk??lni ??? az ISO f??jlokat egy ??res lemezre (CD-R/RW vagy DVD-R/RW). Ez az irat e f??jlok ??? n??h??ny gyakran haszn??lt eszk??z felhaszn??l??s??val t??rt??n?? ??? p??rk??l??s??nek le??r??sa. Felt??telezz??k, hogy ??n??knek nincs Linux tapasztalata, ??s hogy Microsoft Windows-t haszn??lnak a f??jlok let??lt??s??re ??s p??rk??l??s??re.
A Fedora Terv csak Fedora terjeszt??sben kaphat?? szoftvert t??mogat
Csak Fedora keret??ben el????ll??tott ??s lesz??ll??tott szoftvert t??mogat a terv. M??s szoftvereket e cikkben csak a haszn??l?? j?? ir??nyba seg??t??se miatt eml??t??nk. Fedora nem felel azok??rt, ??s nem k??pviseli azon szoftvercsomagokat, illetve haszn??latukat csak az olvas?? k??nyelm????rt ??rjuk le. Ez nem sz??nd??kozik minden oper??ci??s rendszerre kimer??t?? k??zik??nyvnek lenni ISO-k p??rk??l??s??t illet??en.
2. Let??lt??s
Az ISO f??jlok nagyok. Sok ideig tarthat let??lteni ??ket, k??l??n??sen egy bet??rcs??z??s modemmel. Ez??rt haszn??lni akarhat egy let??lt??s igazgat??t.
2.1. CD vagy DVD kiv??laszt??sa
Fedor??t t??bb CD m??ret?? vagy egyetlen DVD m??ret?? ISO k??pf??jl alakj??ban terjesztik. Akkor haszn??lhatja az egyetlen DVD ISO f??jlt, ha a sz??m??t??g??pe megfelel a k??vetkez?? k??vetelm??nyeknek:
- Van benne DVD ??r?? vagy ??jra??r?? egys??g
- Van benne elegend?? hely egy NTFS f??jlrendszerben a k??pf??jl sz??m??ra
A DVD ISO f??jl lemezre ??r??s??hoz a sz??m??t??g??pben kell lennie egy egys??gnek, ami k??pes DVD adathordoz??kat ??rni. Ha a sz??m??t??g??p??ben olyan egys??g van, ami csak CD adathordoz??kat ??r, de nem DVD-t, akkor ink??bb a CD m??ret?? f??jlokat t??ltse le.
N??h??ny f??jlrendszer nem k??pes 2 GiB-n??l nagyobb f??jlokat t??rolni, ??gy DVD k??pet sem. A gyakran haszn??lt NTFS f??jlrendszerben nincs ez a korl??t, de sok m??s nem NTFS f??jlrendszerben van. Ilyen pl. a FAT32. A f??jlrendszer fajt??j??nak ellen??rz??s??hez, pl.
C: a Windows-ban, v??lassza a Start men??t, majd a Saj??t g??pet. Kattintson jobb eg??rgombbal az ellen??rizni k??v??nt meghajt??ra, ??s v??lassza a Tulajdons??gok men??pontot. A felbukkan?? ablakban megjelenik a f??jlrendszer t??pusa. Ha nem NTFS f??jlrendszer elegend?? szabad hellyel, akkor ink??bb a CD m??ret?? f??jlokat t??ltse le.
Nyisson egy ??j mapp??t, ahova mind e f??jlokat let??ltheti. Kb. 700 MiB szabad hely kell minden CD m??ret?? ISO f??jlnak, illetve 3.5 GiB a DVD m??ret?? ISO f??jlnak. Ez az irat felt??telezi, hogy a f??jlokat a
C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora mapp??ba t??lt??tte.
2.2. ISO f??jlok kiv??laszt??sa
Az, hogy pontosan mely f??jlokat kell let??lteni, az ??n rendszer??t??l ??s a let??ltend?? Fedora v??ltozatt??l f??gg. A sz??ks??ges f??jlok elnevez??se
Fedora-<v??ltozat>-<arch>-lemez<sz??m>.iso alak??, ahol "<v??ltozat>" a let??ltend?? Fedora v??ltozat, "<arch>" a sz??m??t??g??p processzor??nak architetk??r??ja (utas??t??sk??szlete), illetve "<sz??m>" a lemez sorsz??ma minden egyes telep??t?? CD eset??ben. Telep??t?? DVD eset??ben, DVD szerepel a f??jl nev??ben.
A sz??m??t??g??p processzor architekt??r??ja (utas??t??sk??szlete)
i386 a 32-bites PC-k eset??ben bele??rtve a Pentium ??s az Athlon processzorcsal??dokat is. Az architekt??ra rendszerint x86_64 a 64-bites PC-k eset??ben bele??rtve az Athlon 64 processzorcsal??dot. Az architekt??ra rendszerint ppc a PowerPC sz??m??t??g??pek eset??ben bele??rtve a legt??bb Apple Macintosh term??ket, miel??tt elkezdtek Intel processzorokat haszn??lni a MacBookban. Ha nem biztos benne, akkor a legval??sz??n??bb, hogy az i386 v??ltozatra van sz??ks??ge.
P??ld??ul, ha Fedora 11 kell egy Pentium 4 sz??m??t??g??phez, a megfelel?? f??jln??v a
Fedora-i386-DVD.iso. Az SHA1SUM f??jlra szint??n sz??ks??g lehet, hogy leellen??rizze, a let??lt??tt f??jl teljes ??s ??p.
3. F??jlok ellen??rz??se
Let??lt??skor t??rt??nhet hiba, m??g akkor is, ha a let??lt??s igazgat?? nem jelenti. Ez??rt nagyon fontos ellen??rizni, hogy a f??jlok nem s??r??ltek. Ez??rt van az
SHA1SUM f??jl. Egy sort tartalmaz minden el??rhet?? ISO f??jlhoz egy ellen??rz?? ??sszeggel, amit az eredeti ISO f??jlb??l sz??m??tanak.
BitTorrent ??nm??k??d?? hibaellen??rz??s
A BitTorrent ??nm??k??d??en elv??gzi ezt a hibaellen??rz??st let??lt??s k??zben. Ha a BitTorrent alkalmaz??s jelenti, hogy siker??lt let??lteni a f??jlt, akkor biztons??ggal ??tugorhatja ezt a l??p??st.
3.1. Ellen??rz??s a Windows grafikus k??rnyezet??ben
Sz??mos ingyenes term??k kaphat?? f??jl ellen??rz??s??re, aminek van kattint??s fel??lete. ??me n??h??ny hivatkoz??s r??juk:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
K??vesse a program telep??t??s??hez adott utas??t??sokat. Amikor futtatja a programot, haszn??lja a f??jl kiv??laszt??s??ra adott eszk??zt, hogy megadja a let??lt??tt ISO k??pf??jlokat. Majd v??lassza ki az SHA-1 elj??r??st a sz??m??t??sra, ??s futtassa az eszk??zt. A programnak id?? kell, hogy v??gezzen, mivel az eg??sz ISO f??jlt be kell olvasnia.
Nyissa meg az
SHA1SUM f??jlt egy sz??vegszerkeszt??vel, pl. Jegyzett??mb, hogy megjelen??tse a tartalm??t. Bizonyosodjon meg arr??l, hogy az ellen??rz?? eszk??z ??ltal megjelen??tett ellen??rz?? ??sszeg minden egyes let??lt??tt ISO f??jlra pontosan megegyezik az SHA1SUM f??jlban lev?? adattal.
Ha minden adat egyezik, akkor felp??rk??lheti az ISO f??jlokat az adathordoz??kra. Ha egy f??jl nem egyezik, tal??n ??jb??l le kell t??lteni.
CAVEAT EMPTOR
A Fedora Terv ??s Red Hat Inc. nem ellen??riz k??ls?? helyeket, mint a fent eml??tettek, illetve az ??ltaluk k??n??lt programokat.
3.2. Ellen??rz??s Windows parancssorban
A parancssori ellen??rz??shez le kell t??ltenie az
sha1sum.exe programot. ??tmutat??st illetve let??ltend?? f??jlra hivatkoz??st a http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html helyen tal??lhat.
Az
sha1sum.exe program kisz??m??tja ??s ki??rja az ellen??rz?? ??sszegeket. A haszn??lat??hoz mentse el az sha1sum.exe f??jlt ugyanabba a mapp??ba, mint az ISO f??jlokat. V??lassza a Start men?? Futtat??s... pontj??t, majd ??rja be a cmd programnevet, hogy elinduljon a Parancssor ablak. L??pjen be a let??lt??s mapp??ba. Futtassa a sha1sum programot minden ISO f??jlra ??gy:
cd "C:\Documents and Settings\Tulajdonos\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-i386-DVD.iso
A programnak n??mi id?? kell, hogy v??gezzen, mivel az eg??sz ISO f??jlt fel kell olvasnia.
Nyissa meg az
SHA1SUM f??jlt egy sz??vegszerkeszt??vel, pl. a Jegyzett??mbbel, hogy megjelen??tse a tartalm??t. Gy??z??dj??n meg arr??l, hogy az ellen??rz?? ??sszeg, amit az sha1sum.exe program sz??m??tott minden egyes let??lt??tt ISO f??jlra pontosan megegyezik az SHA1SUM megfelel?? sor??val.
Ha minden ellen??rz?? ??sszeg egyezik, akkor az ISO f??jlokat felp??rk??lheti adathordoz??kra. Ha egy f??jl nem egyezik, akkor azt tal??n ??jb??l le kell t??lteni.
4. P??rk??l??s
A CD p??rk??l??s folyamata nem mindig nyilv??nval?? a Windows haszn??l??i k??r??ben. Windows alkalmaz??sok gyakran lehet??v?? teszik, hogy a haszn??l?? puszt??n a forr??s f??jlt egy dobozba bedobva, a Lemezre ??r??s gombra kattint??ssal p??rk??lhesse az adatait.
Val??j??ban azonban a p??rk??l?? szoftver k??t m??veletet v??gez. El??sz??r a dobozba r??ngatott forr??sf??jlokb??l teremt egy ISO 9660 szabv??ny?? k??pet, amilyeneket a Fedora telep??t??s??hez is haszn??lunk. Ut??na azt az ISO f??jlt viszi ??t az ??res CD-re. Ha az eredeti forr??s f??jl m??r egy ISO k??p volt, akkor az eredm??ny CD nem haszn??lhat?? telep??t??sre.
A Fedora telep??t?? lemezek megteremt??s??hez fontos, hogy csak a m??sodik l??p??st tegye meg a Fedora ISO f??jlokkal. Az ehhez sz??ks??ges l??p??seket sz??mos n??pszer?? CD p??rk??l?? alkalmaz??s haszn??lat??val al??bb soroljuk fel.
Lemez p??rk??l??s Fedor??n
Fedor??t haszn??lva az adathordoz??k p??rk??l??s??r??l a https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media helyen van le??r??s.
4.1. Az ISO Recorder V2 haszn??lata
Szerezze meg ??s telep??tse az ISO Recordert a http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm helyr??l.
- Az Explorer f??jlkezel??ben jobb eg??rkattint??s az els?? Fedora ISO f??jlon.
- A felbukkan?? men??ben v??lassza a Copy image to CD pontot.
- K??vesse a CD Recording Wizard l??p??seit.
- Ism??telje meg a marad??k ISO f??jlokra.
4.2. Roxio Easy Media Creator 7 haszn??lata
- Ind??tsa Creator Classic-ot.
- V??lassza az Other Tasks pontot.
- V??lassza a Burn from Disc Image File pontot.
- V??lassza ki a Fedora ISO f??jlt ??s p??rk??lje.
4.3. Nero Burning ROM 5 haszn??lata
- Ind??tsa a programot.
- Nyissa meg a men??t.
- V??lassza a pontot.
- V??lassza ki a Fedora ISO f??jlt ??s p??rk??lje.
- Ism??telje a fenti l??p??seket az ??sszes t??bbi ISO f??jlra.
4.4. Nero Express 6 haszn??lata
- Ind??tsa a programot.
- V??lassza a Disc Image or Saved Project pontot.
- Egy Megnyit??s ablak jelenik meg. V??lassza az els?? Fedora ISO f??jlt. Kattintson a gombra.
- ??ll??tsa be az ??r??s sebess??g??t. A legjobb be??ll??t??s hardvert??l f??gg.
- Kattintson a K??vetkez??re a p??rk??l??shez.
- Ism??telje meg a fenti l??p??seket a t??bbi ISO f??jlra.
5. Lemezek ellen??rz??se
Az??rt, hogy meggy??z??dj??n, a CD-k m??k??dni fognak a rendszer??ben, csak az els?? lemezt p??rk??lje meg, ??s v??gezze el a k??vetkez?? elj??r??s miel??tt a t??bbit is megp??rk??ln??:
- K??vetve a sz??m??t??g??p gy??rt??j??nak utas??t??sait gy??z??dj??n meg arr??l, hogy a sz??m??t??g??p BIOS-a CD-r??l t??lti be a rendszert.
- Ind??tsa ??jra a sz??m??t??g??pet benne a Fedora CD-vel. A Fedora telep??t?? rendszerind??t?? men??je jelenik meg.
- Nyomjon Enter-t.
- K??vesse a k??perny??n megjelen?? utas??t??sokat, am??g eljut az adathordoz?? ellen??rz??s??ig.
- Ellen??riztesse le a lemezt. Ha az ellen??rz??s sikeres, a lemez j??. Ezen a ponton a telep??t?? m??g semmit sem v??ltoztatott a sz??m??t??g??pen. T??vol??tsa el a Fedora telep??t?? lemezt, ??s ind??tsa ??jra a rendszert.
- Folytassa a t??bbi adathordoz?? p??rk??l??s??vel, ??s a m??r bizony??tottan j?? els?? lemezt haszn??lva gy??z??dj??n meg a telep??t??s el??tt arr??l, hogy a t??bbi is j??.
6. Visszajelz??s kell nek??nk!
Ha nyomdahib??t tal??l e k??zik??nyvben, vagy b??rmilyen gondolata t??mad arr??l, hogyan jav??thatn??nk e k??zik??nyvet, szeretn??nk tudni r??la! K??rem adjon fel egy jelent??st a Bugzill??ba: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ a k??vetkez?? term??kre: Fedora.
Hibajelent??s felad??sa sor??n gy??z??dj??n meg arr??l, hogy megeml??tette a k??zik??nyv azonos??t??j??t: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc
Ha akad b??rmilyen az irat jav??t??s??t c??lz?? javaslata, pr??b??lja azt olyan r??szletesen le??rni, amennyire csak lehets??ges. Ha hib??t tal??lt, k??rem adja meg a szakasz sz??m??t ??s a sz??vegk??rnyezetet, hogy k??nnyen megtal??ljuk.
A.??V??ltoz??sok
| Verzi??t??rt??net | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Verzi?? 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
| |||
| Verzi?? 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
| |||
Fedora 11
ISO-images naar schijf branden
Hoe ISO-images te downloaden en CD en DVD-media aan te maken
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
Bericht
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Samenvatting
Hoe ISO-images te downloaden en CD en DVD-media aan te maken
1. Inleiding
De Fedora distributie wordt aangeboden als ISO-bestanden in het ISO 9660 formaat. Je kunt deze ISO-bestanden op zowel CD-ROM als DVD-media branden om een opstartbare schijf te maken.
Voordat je Fedora van een schijf op een computer kunt installeren moet je eerst de ISO-bestanden overbrengen, of branden, op lege schijf-media (CD-R/RW of DVD-R/RW). Dit document beschrijft de procedure voor het branden van deze bestanden door gebruik te maken van een paar gewone hulpmiddelen. Dit document gaat ervan uit dat je geen ervaring hebt met Linux, en dat je Microsoft Windows gebruikt voor het downloaden en branden van de bestanden.
Het Fedora Project ondersteunt alleen software dat onderdeel is van de Fedora distributie
Alleen software gemaakt en verzonden als deel van Fedora wordt ondersteund door het project. Andere software genoemd in dit artikel is bedoeld om de gebruiker in de juiste richting te sturen. Fedora is niet verantwoordelijk voor noch bevestigd deze software pakketten, en hun gebruik beschreven hier is slechts voor het gemak van de lezer. Dit is niet bedoeld om een complete gids te zijn voor het branden van ISO's op elk operating systeem.
2. Downloaden
De ISO-bestanden zijn groot en het kan een lange tijd duren om ze te downloaden, zeker wanneer er gebruik gemaakt wordt van een dial-up modem. Wellicht wil je gebruik maken van een download manager.
2.1. CD of DVD kiezen
Fedora wordt gedistribueerd op meerdere ISO-bestanden ter grootte van een CD, of een enkel ISO-bestand ter grootte van een DVD. Je kunt het enkele DVD ISO-bestand gebruiken als je computer voldoet aan de volgende vereisten:
- Het heeft een DVD-writable of DVD-rewritable station
- Het heeft een NTFS schijf met voldoende ruimte om het image-bestand op te slaan
Om het DVD ISO-bestand naar een schijf te schrijven, moet jouw computer een station te hebben dat op DVD-media kan schrijven. Als jouw computer een station heeft dat alleen op CD-media kan schrijven en niet op DVD-media, download dan de bestanden van CD grootte.
Sommige bestandssystemen kunnen bestanden groter dan 2 GB, zoals de DVD-image, niet opslaan. Het veelgebruikte NTFS-bestandssysteem heeft deze beperking niet, vele andere niet-NTFS formaten echter wel, zoals FAT32. Om het formaat van een schijf onder Windows zoals
C:, te controleren, selecteer dan in het Start menu en dan Deze Computer. Klik met de rechter muisknop op de schijf die je wilt controleren en kies Eigenschappen. Het dialoogscherm toont dan het formaat van die schijf. Als je geen NTFS schijf hebt met voldoende vrije ruimte, download dan de bestanden van CD grootte.
Maak een nieuwe map aan waarin je al deze bestanden kunt downloaden. Je hebt ongeveer 700 MB aan vrije ruimte nodig voor elk ISO-bestand ter grootte van een CD, of ongeveer 3.5 GB voor het ISO-bestand ter grootte van een DVD. Deze handleiding neemt aan dat je de bestanden hebt gedownload naar de map
C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora.
2.2. De ISO-bestanden kiezen
De exacte bestanden die je nodig hebt van de download-server hangen af van jouw systeem en de versie van Fedora die je wilt downloaden. De bestanden die je nodig hebt, hebben een naam in de vorm
Fedora-<version>-<arch>-disc<count>.iso, waarbij "<version>" de versie van Fedora is die je wilt downloaden, "<arch>" de architectuur van jouw computer is en "<count>" het schijfnummer voor elk van de installatie CD's is. In het geval van een installatie DVD, wordt DVD gebruikt in de bestandsnaam.
De computerprocessor architectuur is doorgaans
i386 voor 32-bit PC's, waaronder de Pentium en Athlon processorfamilies. De architectuur is doorgaans x86_64 voor 64-bit PC's, waaronder de Athlon 64 processorfamilie. De architectuur is doorgaans ppc voor PowerPC computers, waaronder de meeste Apple Macintosh modellen voordat de Intel processoren gebruikt werden in de Macbook. Als je het niet zeker weet heeft jouw systeem waarschijnlijk de i386 versies nodig.
Als je bijvoorbeeld Fedora 11 voor een Pentium 4 computer gaat downloaden, heb je het bestand
Fedora-i386-DVD.iso nodig. Je hebt wellicht ook het SHA1SUM bestand nodig om te controleren of de bestanden die je hebt gedownload compleet en correct zijn.
3. Valideren van de bestanden
Tijdens het downloaden kunnen fouten voorkomen, zelfs wanneer je download manager er geen meldt. Daarom is het zeer belangrijk om te controleren of de bestanden niet op de een of andere manier beschadigd zijn. Dit is het doel van het
SHA1SUM bestand. Het bevat voor elk van de beschikbare ISO-bestanden een regel met een inhoud-controlerende code, een hash, berekend vanuit de originele ISO-bestanden.
Automatische foutcontrole met BitTorrent
BitTorrent voert automatisch foutcontrole uit tijdens het downloaden. Als je BitTorrent-applicatie meldt dat alle bestanden succesvol zijn gedownload, kun je deze stap veilig overslaan.
3.1. Validatie in de grafische omgeving van Windows
Er zijn een aantal gratis producten beschikbaar voor bestandsvalidatie en hashing die grafische interface hebben. Hieronder een aantal links naar een paar van hen:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
Volg de opgegeven instructies om het programma te installeren. Wanneer je het programma start, gebruik het bestand selecteermiddel om je gedownloade ISO-bestanden te selecteren. Daarna selecteer je het SHA-1 algoritme voor de berekening en laat het programma lopen. Het programma heeft enige tijd nodig, omdat het het volledige ISO-bestand moet inlezen.
Open het bestand
SHA1SUM met een teksteditor, zoals Notepad, om de inhoud ervan te laten zien. Controleer of de hash-waarde weergegeven door het hash-programma voor elk van de gedownloade ISO-bestanden exact overeenkomt met de overeenkomstige hash-waarde in het SHA1SUM bestand.
Als alle hashes overeenkomen kun je de ISO-bestanden branden naar media. Als een bestand niet overeenkomt moet je het waarschijnlijk opnieuw downloaden.
LET OP
Het Fedora Project en Red Hat, Inc. hebben geen controle over externe sites, zoals degene die hierboven zijn getoond, of de programma's die zij aanbieden.
3.2. Validatie op de commandoregel van Windows
Om de bestanden te controleren met behulp van de commandoregel moet je het programma
sha1sum.exe downloaden. Voor instructies en de link om het programma te downloaden, zie http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html.
Het
sha1sum.exe programma berekent en geeft hash-waarden weer. Om het te gebruiken dient het sha1sum.exe bestand opgeslagen te worden in dezelfde map als de ISO-bestanden. Selecteer Run... vanuit het Start menu en voer dan cmd in als naam voor het programma om een Command Prompt venster op te starten. Ga vervolgens naar de download map. Voer het sha1sum programma uit voor elk ISO-bestand zoals hieronder:
cd "C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-i386-DVD.iso
Het duurt even voordat dit programma is voltooid, omdat het hele ISO-bestand gelezen moet worden.
Open het bestand
SHA1SUM met een teksteditor, zoals Notepad, om de inhoud ervan te laten zien. Controleer of de hash-waarde weergegeven door sha1sum.exe voor elk van de gedownloade ISO-bestanden exact overeenkomt met de overeenkomstige hash-waarde in het SHA1SUM bestand.
Als alle hashes overeenkomen kunnen de ISO-bestanden op media gebrand worden. Als een bestand niet overeenkomt moet je het waarschijnlijk opnieuw downloaden.
4. Branden
Een CD branden is niet altijd even duidelijk voor de gebruikers van Windows. Windows applicaties geven vaak de mogelijkheid om data CD's te branden door simpelweg een bronbestand te slepen naar een venster en de Burn knop te klikken.
Echter, in werkelijkheid voert de brand-software twee verschillende operaties uit. Ten eerste, het maakt een standaard ISO 9660 image-bestand aan, net zoals de image-bestanden die gebruikt worden om Fedora te installeren, van de bronbestanden die naar het venster werden gesleept. Ten tweede, het plaatst dat ISO-bestand op de blanco CD. Als het originele bronbestand reeds een ISO-bestand was, is de resulterende CD niet bruikbaar voor installatie doeleinden.
Om de Fedora installatie CD's te maken, is het belangrijk dat je enkel de tweede stap uitvoert met de Fedora ISO-bestanden. De benodigde stappen om dit te doen met diverse populaire CD brand applicaties zijn hieronder vermeld.
Schijven branden met Fedora
Informatie om media te branden met Fedora wordt behandeld in https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media.
4.1. De ISO Recorder V2 Power Toy gebruiken
Verkrijg en installeer de ISO Recorder power toy van de http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm website.
- In de bestandbeheerder Explorer, rechts klikken op het eerste Fedora ISO-bestand.
- In het context-menu, selecteer Copy image to CD.
- Volg de stappen op aangegeven in het pop-up venster van CD Recording Wizard.
- Herhaal dit voor de andere ISO-bestanden
4.2. Roxio Easy Media Creator 7 gebruiken
- Start Creator Classic.
- Selecteer Other Tasks.
- Selecteer Burn from Disc Image File.
- Kies het Fedora ISO-bestand en brand het op schijf.
4.3. Nero Burning ROM 5 gebruiken
- Start het programma.
- Open het menu.
- Selecteer .
- Kies het Fedora ISO-bestand en brand het op schijf.
- Herhaal de bovenstaande stappen voor elk van de andere ISO-bestanden.
4.4. Nero Express 6 gebruiken
- Start het programma.
- Selecteer Disc Image or Saved Project.
- Er verschijnt een Open venster. Selecteer het eerste Fedora ISO-bestand. Klik op .
- Stel de schrijfsnelheid van je schijfbrander in. De optimale instelling hangt af van jouw apparaat.
- Klik op Volgende om te branden.
- Herhaal de bovenstaande stappen voor de andere ISO-bestanden.
5. Het testen van je schijven
Om er zeker van te zijn dat de CD's zullen werken op je systeem, wil je wellicht alleen schijf 1 branden en de volgende stappen uitvoeren voordat je de andere schijven brandt:
- De aanwijzingen volgend van jouw computerleverancier, zorg ervoor dat het BIOS van je computer is ingesteld om op te starten vanaf het CD-station.
- Herstart de computer met de Fedora schijf in het CD station. Het opstartmenu voor het Fedora installatieprogramma verschijnt.
- Druk op Enter.
- Volg de aanwijzingen op het scherm totdat je gevraagd wordt om een media-controle uit te voeren.
- Voer de controle uit op de schijf. Als de controle slaagt is je schijf correct. Op dit moment heeft het installatieprogramma nog niets veranderd op je computer. Verwijder de Fedora installatieschijf en herstart het systeem zodat je computer weer in Windows opstart.
- Ga verder met het branden van andere media en wees er zeker van ze voor de installatie te checken met de eerste schijf die al bewezen goed is.
6. We hebben terugkoppeling nodig!
Indien u een typografische fout in deze handleiding vindt, of u weet een manier om deze handleiding te verbeteren, zouden wij dat graag van u horen! Meldt u alstublieft fouten in de uitgave Fedora via Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/.
Indien u fouten meldt, vergeet dan alstublieft niet het kenmerk: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc te vermelden.
Indien u suggesties hebt om de documentatie te verbeteren, probeer dan zo duidelijk mogelijk deze suggesties te omschrijven. Indien u fouten hebt ontdekt, vermeldt dan alstublieft het sectienummer en wat omringende tekst, opdat we de fout makkelijker kunnen vinden.
A.??Herzieningsgeschiedenis
| Wijzigingen | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Herziening 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
| |||
| Herziening 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
| |||
Fedora 11
Nagrywanie obraz??w ISO na p??yty
Jak pobra?? obrazy ISO i utworzy?? no??niki CD i DVD
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
informacja prawna
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstrakt
Jak pobra?? obrazy ISO i utworzy?? no??niki CD i DVD
1. Wprowadzenie
Dystrybucja Fedora jest dostarczana w formie obraz??w w standardzie systemu plik??w ISO 9660. Mo??esz skopiowa?? te obrazy na CD-ROM lub DVD w celu utworzenia p??yty startowej.
Zanim b??dziesz m??g?? zainstalowa?? Fedor?? na komputerze, musisz przenie???? lub nagra?? te pliki ISO na czyste p??yty (CD-R/RW lub DVD-R/RW). Ten dokument opisuje procedur?? nagrywania tych plik??w u??ywaj??c kilku popularnych narz??dzi. Ten dokument zak??ada, ??e nie masz do??wiadczenia z Linuksem i ??e u??ywasz systemu Microsoft Windows do pobierania i nagrywania plik??w.
Projekt Fedora wspiera wy????cznie oprogramowanie b??d??ce cz????ci?? dystrybucji Fedora
Tylko oprogramowanie wyprodukowane i dostarczane jako cz?????? Fedory jest wspierane przez projekt. Wymienienie innego oprogramowania w tym artykule ma na celu poprowadzenie u??ytkownika we w??a??ciwym kierunku. Fedora nie jest odpowiedzialna za wszelkie szkody wyrz??dzone przez te pakiety oprogramowania, a ich u??ycie jest opisane wy????cznie dla wygody czytelnik??w. Ten artyku?? nie jest przewodnikiem nagrywania plik??w ISO w ka??dym systemie operacyjnym.
2. Pobieranie
Pliki ISO s?? du??e i pobranie ich mo??e zaj???? du??o czasu, zw??aszcza u??ywaj??c modemu dial-up. Mo??esz u??y?? mened??era pobierania plik??w.
2.1. Wybieranie CD lub DVD
Fedora jest rozprowadzana w kilku plikach o wielko??ci CD lub w jednym pliku ISO o wielko??ci DVD. Mo??esz wykorzysta?? pojedynczy plik ISO DVD, je??li komputer spe??nia nast??puj??ce wymagania:
- Posiada nap??d DVD-R b??d?? DVD-RW
- Posiada dysk NTFS z wystarczaj??c?? ilo??ci?? miejsca do przechowania pliku obrazu
Aby zapisa?? plik ISO DVD na p??yt??, komputer musi posiada?? nap??d, kt??ry nagrywa no??niki DVD. Je??li komputer jest wyposa??ony w nap??d, kt??ry nagrywa tylko no??niki CD, a nie DVD, pobierz pliki o wielko??ci CD.
Niekt??re systemy plik??w nie mog?? przechowywa?? plik??w wi??kszych ni?? 2 GB, takich jak obraz DVD. Powszechnie u??ywany system NTFS nie posiada tego ograniczenia, ale wiele innych format??w nie b??d??cych NTFS, takich jak FAT32 posiada to ograniczenie. Aby sprawdzi?? format dysku pod Windows, takiego jak
C:, wybierz menu Start, a nast??pnie M??j komputer. Naci??nij prawym klawiszem na dysk, kt??ry chcesz sprawdzi?? i wybierz W??a??ciwo??ci. Okno dialogowe wy??wietla format tego systemu plik??w. Je??li nie posiadasz dysku NTFS z wystarczaj??c?? ilo??ci?? wolnego miejsca, pobierz pliki o rozmiarze CD.
Utw??rz nowy folder, gdzie mo??esz pobra?? wszystkie pliki. Potrzebujesz oko??o 700 MB wolnego miejsca dla ka??dego pliku ISO o rozmiarze CD lub oko??o 3.5 GiB dla pliku ISO o rozmiarze DVD. Ten dokument zak??ada, ??e pobrano te pliki do folderu
C:\Documents and Settings\W??a??ciciel\Moje dokumenty\Pobrane pliki\Fedora.
2.2. Wybieranie plik??w ISO
Dok??adne pliki z serwera pobierania zale???? od systemu i wersji Fedory, kt??r?? pobierasz. Pliki, kt??rych potrzebujesz s?? nazwane zgodnie ze schematem
Fedora-<wersja>-<architektura>-disc<numer>.iso, gdzie "<wersja>" jest wersj?? Fedory, kt??r?? chcesz pobra??, "<architektura>" to architektura procesora komputera, a "<numer>" jest numerem p??yty ka??dego instalacyjnego CD. W przypadku instalacyjnej p??yty DVD w nazwie pliku u??yte jest DVD.
Architektura procesora komputera to zazwyczaj
i386 dla komputer??w 32 bitowych, w tym rodziny procesor??w Pentium oraz Athlon. Architektura x86_64 jest dla komputer??w 64 bitowych, w tym rodziny procesor??w Athlon 64. Architektura PPC jest dla komputer??w PowerPC, w tym wi??kszo???? oferty Mac??w firmy Apple przed rozpocz??ciem u??ywania procesor??w Intela w MacBookach. Je??li nie jeste?? pewny architektury, system prawdopodobnie wymaga wersji i386.
Je??li pobierasz na przyk??ad Fedor?? 11 dla komputera Pentium 4, potrzebujesz pliku
Fedora-i386-DVD.iso. Mo??esz r??wnie?? potrzebowa?? pliku SHA1SUM do sprawdzenia, czy pliki, kt??re pobra??e?? s?? kompletne i poprawne.
3. Sprawdzanie plik??w
B????dy mog?? wyst??pi?? podczas pobierania, nawet je??li mened??er pobierania plik??w ??adnych nie zg??asza. Dlatego te?? bardzo wa??ne jest sprawdzenie, czy pliki nie zosta??y w ??aden spos??b uszkodzone. W??a??nie w tym celu istnieje
SHA1SUM. Zawiera on jeden wiersz dla ka??dego z dost??pnych plik??w ISO z kodem sprawdzaj??cym zawarto???? zwanym hashem obliczonym z oryginalnych plik??w ISO.
Automatyczne sprawdzanie b????d??w BitTorrenta
BitTorrent automatycznie wykonuje sprawdzanie b????d??w podczas pobierania. Je??li aplikacja BitTorrent zg??asza, ??e wszystkie pliki zosta??y pomy??lnie pobrane, mo??esz bezpiecznie pomin???? ten krok.
3.1. Sprawdzanie w ??rodowisku graficznym Windows
S?? dost??pne darmowe produkty do sprawdzania i hashowania plik??w, kt??re posiadaj?? interfejsy typu "wska?? i kliknij". Oto odno??niki do kilku z nich:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
Post??puj zgodnie z do????czonymi instrukcjami w celu instalacji programu. Kiedy uruchomisz program, u??yj narz??dzi selekcji do wybrania pobranych obraz??w ISO. Wtedy wybierz algorytm SHA-1 do oblicze?? i uruchom narz??dzie. Aplikacja potrzebuje pewnego czasu do uko??czenia pracy, poniewa?? musi odczyta?? ca??y plik ISO.
Otw??rz plik
SHA1SUM edytorem tekstu, takim jak Notatnik, aby wy??wietli?? jego zawarto????. Upewnij si??, ??e hash wy??wietlany przez narz??dzie hashuj??ce dla ka??dego z pobranych plik??w ISO dok??adnie odpowiada odpowiedniemu hashu w pliku SHA1SUM.
Je??li wszystkie hashe si?? zgadzaj??, mo??esz nagra?? pliki ISO na no??niki. Je??li jaki?? plik nie pasuje, mo??esz musie?? pobra?? go ponownie.
NABYWCA SPRZECIWIAJ??CY SI??
Projekt Fedora i Red Hat, Inc. nie maj?? kontroli nad zewn??trznymi stronami takimi jak te przedstawione powy??ej lub programami, kt??re dostarczaj??.
3.2. Sprawdzanie w wierszu polece?? Windows
W celu sprawdzenia plik??w u??ywaj??c wiersza polece??, nale??y pobra?? program
sha1sum.exe. Po instrukcje oraz odno??nik do pobrania programu, zobacz http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html.
Program
sha1sum.exe oblicza i wy??wietla hashe. Aby go u??y??, zapisz sha1sum.exe do tego samego folderu, co pliki ISO. Wybierz Uruchom... z menu Start i podaj cmd jako nazw?? programu, aby uruchomi?? okno wiersza polece??. Nast??pnie przejd?? do folderu pobranych plik??w. Uruchom sha1sum dla ka??dego pliku ISO w nast??puj??cy spos??b:
cd "C:\Documents and Settings\W??a??ciciel\Moje dokumenty\Pobrane \Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-i386-DVD.iso
Program potrzebuje troch?? czasu aby sko??czy??, poniewa?? musi odczyta?? ca??y plik ISO.
Otw??rz plik
SHA1SUM edytorem tekstu, takim jak Notatnik, aby wy??wietli?? jego zawarto????. Upewnij si??, ??e hash wy??wietlany przez sha1sum.exe dla ka??dego z pobranych plik??w ISO dok??adnie odpowiada hashu w pliku SHA1SUM.
Je??li wszystkie hashe si?? zgadzaj??, mo??esz nagra?? pliki ISO na no??niki. Je??li jaki?? plik nie pasuje, musisz pobra?? go ponownie.
4. Nagrywanie
Proces nagrywania CD nie zawsze jest oczywisty dla u??ytkownik??w Windows. Aplikacje Windows cz??sto pozwalaj?? u??ytkownikom nagrywa?? p??yty z danymi po prostu przez przeci??gni??cie plik??w ??r??d??owych do okna i naci??ni??cie przycisku Nagraj.
W rzeczywisto??ci oprogramowanie nagrywaj??ce wykonuje dwie operacje. Najpierw tworzy obraz w standardzie ISO 9660, taki sam jak te u??ywane do instalacji Fedory, z plik??w ??r??d??owych, kt??re zosta??y umieszczone w oknie. Nast??pnie program umieszcza ten plik ISO na czystym CD. Je??li oryginalny plik ??r??d??owy by?? ju?? plikiem ISO, wynikowe CD jest bezu??yteczne dla potrzeb instalacyjnych.
W celu utworzenia instalacyjnych p??yt Fedory istotne jest, aby?? wykona?? tylko drugi krok z plikami ISO Fedory. Kroki potrzebne do zrobienia tego przy u??yciu kilku popularnych aplikacji nagrywaj??cych CD zosta??y przedstawione poni??ej.
Nagrywanie p??yt w Fedorze
Informacje o tym, jak nagrywa?? no??niki u??ywaj??c Fedory znajduj?? si?? w https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media.
4.1. U??ywanie ISO Recorder V2 Power Toy
Zdob??d?? i zainstaluj ISO Recorder Power Toy ze strony WWW http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm.
- W mened??erze plik??w Eksplorator naci??nij prawym przyciskiem na pierwszym pliku ISO Fedory.
- W menu kontekstowym wybierz Skopiuj obraz na CD.
- Post??puj zgodnie z krokami podanymi przez okno wyskakuj??ce Kreator nagrywania CD.
- Powt??rz dla pozosta??ych plik??w ISO.
4.2. U??ywanie Roxio Easy Media Creator 7
- Uruchom Klasyczny kreator.
- Wybierz Inne zadania.
- Wybierz Nagraj z pliku obrazu p??yty.
- Wybierz pierwszy plik ISO Fedory i nagraj go.
4.3. U??ycie Nero Burning ROM 5
- Uruchom program.
- Otw??rz menu .
- Wybierz .
- Wybierz pierwszy plik ISO Fedory i nagraj go.
- Powt??rz powy??sze kroki dla ka??dego z pozosta??ych plik??w ISO.
4.4. U??ywanie Nero Express 6
- Uruchom program.
- Wybierz Obraz p??yty lub zapisany projekt.
- Pojawi si?? okno dialogowe Otw??rz. Wybierz pierwszy plik ISO Fedory. Naci??nij Otw??rz.
- Ustaw pr??dko???? nagrywania swojej nagrywarki p??yt. Optymalne ustawienia zale???? od danego sprz??tu.
- Naci??nij Dalej, aby nagra??.
- Powt??rz powy??sze kroki dla pozosta??ych plik??w ISO.
5. Testowanie p??yt
Aby upewni?? si??, ??e te CD b??d?? dzia??a??y w systemie, mo??esz nagra?? tylko pierwsz?? p??yt?? i przeprowadzi?? nast??puj??cy proces przed nagrywaniem pozosta??ych:
- Post??puj??c zgodnie ze wskaz??wkami producenta komputera, upewnij si??, ??e BIOS komputera jest ustawiony do uruchamiania z nap??du CD.
- Ponownie uruchom komputer z pierwsz?? p??yt?? Fedory w nap??dzie CD. Pojawi si?? menu startowe instalatora Fedory.
- Naci??nij Enter.
- Post??puj zgodnie ze wskaz??wkami na ekranie, dop??ki nie zostaniesz zapytany, czy chcia??by?? wykona?? test no??nik??w.
- Wykonaj test p??yty. Je??li sprawdzenie zako??czy si?? powodzeniem, p??yta jest poprawna. W tym momencie instalator niczego nie zmieni?? w komputerze. Wyjmij p??yt?? instalacyjn?? Fedory i ponownie uruchom system.
- Kontynuuj nagrywanie innych no??nik??w. Upewnij si??, ??e je sprawdzi??e?? przed rozpocz??ciem instalowania z pierwszej p??yty, kt??ra ju?? zosta??a sprawdzona.
6. Opinie s?? mile widziane
Je??li znajdziesz b????d typograficzny w tym podr??czniku lub masz pomys?? jak go ulepszy??, skontaktuj si?? z nami. Prosimy wys??a?? raport w Bugzilli: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ w produkcie Fedora.
Wysy??aj??c raport b????du, upewnij si??, ??e wspomnia??e?? identyfikator podr??cznika: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc
Je??li masz sugestie, jak ulepszy?? dokumentacj??, postaraj si?? by?? jak najbardziej szczeg????owy opisuj??c sw??j pomys??. Je??li znalaz??e?? b????d, do????cz numer sekcji i poblisk?? cze???? tekstu, aby??my mogli ??atwo go znale????.
A.??Historia wersji
| Historia zmian | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Zmiana 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
| |||
| Zmiana 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
| |||
This document describes how to turn downloadable ISO images into CD and DVD media using a variety of platforms and applications. It is available in the following languages:
-US English | +
Deutsch |
+US English |
???????????????? |
-Espa??ol |
+Espa??ol |
+magyar |
italiano |
-polski |
+nederlands |
+polski |
portugu??s |
portugu??s brasileiro |
???????????? |
From rlandmann at fedoraproject.org Fri Aug 7 14:57:05 2009
From: rlandmann at fedoraproject.org (=?utf-8?q?R=C3=BCdiger_Landmann?=)
Date: Fri, 7 Aug 2009 14:57:05 +0000 (UTC)
Subject: web/html/docs/readme-burning-isos/Common_Content/images
CC-BY-SA-3.0.png, 1.1, NONE
Message-ID: <20090807145705.619C611C00D7@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com>
Author: rlandmann
Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/readme-burning-isos/Common_Content/images
In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv20707/Common_Content/images
Removed Files:
CC-BY-SA-3.0.png
Log Message:
rm logo accidentally committed
From rlandmann at fedoraproject.org Fri Aug 7 15:16:48 2009
From: rlandmann at fedoraproject.org (=?utf-8?q?R=C3=BCdiger_Landmann?=)
Date: Fri, 7 Aug 2009 15:16:48 +0000 (UTC)
Subject: da-DK/Article_Info.po da-DK/Author_Group.po
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commit 577a1cd4f6cd59a14e96e3ab47ef1fa21abed114
Author: Ruediger Landmann Ophavsret ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others Autorska prava ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others ???????????????? ?????????? ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
--- NEW FILE de-DE.html ---
Fedora 11Fedora Live-aftryk
Hvordan man bruger et Fedora Live-aftryk
retslig note
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Resum??
Hvordan man bruger et Fedora Live-aftryk1. Introduktion
Et Live-aftryk er en effektiv og risikofri m??de at "pr??vek??re" Fedora-operativsystemet p?? din egen hardware. Hvis afpr??vningen evalueringen en en vellykket og sp??ndende oplevelse, kan du v??lge at installere Live-systemsoftwaren s??dan at det bliver dit normale computermilj??. Dette Live-aftryk tilbyder dig en oplevelse, der er meget t??t p?? at k??re Fedora, men der er nogen fordele og ulemper. Kig p?? Afsnit??5, ???Fordele??? og Afsnit??6, ???Ulemper??? for mere information.
2. Hvad skal jeg g??re med mit live-aftryk?
F??r du bruger dit Live-aftryk, b??r du l??se n??ste afsnit for at l??re, hvordan du f??r st??rst gl??de af Fedora. Det kan ogs?? v??re nyttigt for dig at l??se Afsnit??4, ???Opstart??? for tips til opstart fra dette medie. Inds??t derefter dette medie i din computer og start op fra det.
3. Foresl??et hardware
Dette Live-system kan starte op og k??re p?? de fleste computere med 256 MB eller mere systemhukommelse, eller RAM, installeret. Hvis din computer har 1 GB eller mere systemhukommelse installeret kan du v??lge K??r fra RAM fra opstartsmenuen for st??rrere ydelse.
Din computer skal have muligheden for at starte op fra enheden der indeholder Live-aftryksmediet. For eksempel, hvis Live-aftrykket er p?? en cd eller dvd skal din computer kunne starte op fra cd- eller dvd-drevet.
4. Opstart
Dette afsnit giver ekstra vejledning for brugere hvis erfaring med at starte computeren, eller "booting," er begr??nset til at trykke p?? str??mknappen. For at s??tte dit system til at starte op fra Live-mediet skal du f??rst slukke eller s??tte computeren i dvale, hvis den ikke allerede er slukket. T??nd din computer og hold ??je med den f??rste BIOS-sk??rm for at finde prompten som fort??ller hvilken tast du skal bruge for enten:
en opstartmenu, eller
ops??tningsv??rkt??jet til BIOS
Opstartsmenu-muligheden anbefales. Hvis du ikke kan se en s??dan prompt, kan du kigge i din producents dokumentation for dit computersystem eller bundkort for den rigtige tastekombination. P?? mange systemer er den p??kr??vede tast F12, F2, F1 eller Delete.
De fleste computere starter fra harddisken (eller en af harddiskene, hvis der er flere end ??n). Hvis du l??ser dette dokument fra en cd eller en dvd, skal du s??tte computeren til at starte op fra dvd- eller cd-drevet. Hvis du l??ser denne fil fra en USB-enhed, som for eksempel en USB-pen, skal du s??tte computeren til at starte op fra USB-enheden.
Hvis du laver ??ndringer i BIOS-konfigurationen, kopier den nuv??rende boot-enhedsvalg-konfiguration f??r du ??ndrer den. Denne kopi giver dig mulighed for at genoprette den oprindelige konfiguration hvis du v??lger at vende tilbage til dit tidligere computermilj??.
BIOS'en p?? ??ldre computere har m??ske ikke de valg du ??nsker, som f.eks. opstart fra netv??rk. Hvis din computer kun kan starte op fra en floppy-diskette eller harddisken, er du m??ske ikke i stand til at opleve dette Live-aftryk p?? din computer.
Det kan m??ske v??re relevant at unders??ge, om en opdateret BIOS er tilg??ngelig fra din computerproducent. En BIOS-opdatering kan indeholde ekstra muligheder i opstartsmenuen, men kr??ver forsigtighed, for at den installeres rigtigt. Kig i din producents dokumentation for mere information. Ellers, sp??rg en ven om du m?? pr??ve at k??re dette Live-aftryk p?? deres nyere computer.
5. Fordele
F??lgende fordele f??lger med brugen af et live-aftryk:
Mens du k??rer dette Live-aftryk har du styringen og er ikke begr??nset til et s??t sk??rmbilleder eller indstillinger valgt af andre. V??lg hvilke opgaver eller programmer du vil udforske med fuldendt frihed.
Du kan eksperimentere med dette Live-aftryk uden at ??del??gge dit tidligere computermilj??, dokumenter eller skrivebord. S??t dit nuv??rende operativsystem i dvale, genstart med Live-aftrykket og genstart det oprindelige operativsystem n??r du er f??rdig. Dit tidligere milj?? vender tilbage uden ??ndringer.
Du kan bruge Live-aftrykket til at finde ud af om alle dine hardwareenheder er genkendt og konfigureret rigtigt.
Fuld hardwaregenkendelse
I nogle tilf??lde har Live-aftrykket ikke unders??ttelse for hele linjen af hardware set i et installeret Fedora-system. Du kan v??re n??dt til at konfigure underst??ttelsen manuelt i Live-aftrykket, men du skal gentage disse trin hver gang du bruger Live-aftrykket.
Du kan bruge Live-aftrykket til at pr??ve forskellige skrivebordsmilj??er, som f.eks. Gnome, KDE, Xfce eller andre. Ingen af disse valg tvinger dig til at genkonfigurere en eksisterende Linux-installation p?? din computer.
6. Ulemper
Live-aftrykket involverer ogs?? nogen ulemper i bytte for bekvemmelighed:
N??r du bruger dette Live-aftryk kan din computer v??re meget langsommere til at reagere eller have brug for mere tid til at gennemf??re en opgave end med et system, der er installeret p?? harddisken. Cd- og dvd-diske er meget langsommere end harddiske til at sende data til computeren. En mindre del af din computers systemhukommelse er tilg??ngelig til indl??sning og k??rsel af programmer. At k??re Live-aftrykket fra RAM giver hurtigere reaktionstid p?? bekostning af st??rre hukommelsesforbrug.
For at tilpasse pladsproblemer, er f??rre installerede programmer inkluderet end i en fuld installation af Fedora. Dine yndlings programmer er muligvis ikke tilstede i dette Live-aftryk, selvom de er til stede og k??rer ganske godt i en fuld installation af Fedora.
P?? dette tidspunkt, kan du ikke installere nye programmer permanent i Live-aftrykket. For at pr??ve andre programmer eller nyere versioner af eksisterende programmer skal du installere Fedora p?? din computer. Du er dog muligvis i stand til midlertidigt at installere eller opdatere programmer hvis du har rigeligt systemhukommelse. De fleste systemer kr??ver mere end 512 MB RAM for at installation og opdateringer kan gennemf??res. Disse ??ndringer vil g?? tabt, n??r du lukker Live-aftrykket ned.
??ndringer kan ogs?? forsvinde hvis dit systems hukommelsforbrug tvinger systemet til at genl??se den oprindelige software eller indstillinger fra Live-aftrykket. Denne opf??rsel sker kun p?? et Live-aftryk og opst??r ikke i en fuld installation af Fedora.
7. Eksperiment??r med live-aftrykket
Mens du udforsker menuerne rundt omkring p?? skrivebordet, s?? se efter programmer du m??ske kunne t??nke dig at k??re. Derudover kan du udforske andre muligheder.
7.1. Del eksisterende data
Du kan dele data ved at montere eksisterende lagerenheder, som for eksempel:
floppydisketter
USB-drev
diskpartitioner
7.2. Lav en sikkerhedskopi af data
Du kan bruge dette live-aftryk til at lave en sikkerhedskopi af data, hvis dit computersystem inkluderer:
et cd- eller dvd-br??nderdrev
en harddisk med nok ledig plads
Filer som normalt er i brug af dit forrige operativsystem n??r det k??rer, er ikke i brug i live-aftrykket. Derfor kan du bruge live-aftrykket til at kompiere filer der er problematiske for sikkerhedskopisoftware i det forrige operativsystem.
8. Install??r Fedora fra et live-aftryk
For at installere systemet fra dette live-aftryk, k??r live-os som beskrevet ovenfor, og v??lg Install??r til harddisk-programmet p?? skrivebordet. Ved at bruge den medf??lgende Fedora-installation kan du tilapsse softwaren og konfigurationen efter dine ??nsker p?? en vedbarende basis.
9. Vi mangler tilbagemeldinger!
Hvis du finder en typografisk fejl i denne manual, eller hvis har ideer til at g??re denne manual bedre, vil det gl??de os at h??re fra dig! Indsend venligst en rapport i Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ mod produktet Documentation.
N??r du indsender en fejlrapport skal du v??re huske at n??vne manualens kendetegn: Fedora_Live_images
Hvis du har forslag til at forbedre dokumentationen, skal du pr??ve at v??re s?? specifik som mulig n??r du beskriver det. Hvis du har fundet en fejl, skal du venligst inkludere sektionsnummeret og noget af det omkringst??ende tekst, s?? vi nemt kan finde det.
A.??Revisionshistorik
Revisionshistorie Revision 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Konverteret til bygning (build) i Publican Revision 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Opdatering til Fedora 11 Revision 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Opdatering til Fedora 10.93 Revision 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Opdatering til Fedora 10 Revision 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Opdatering til Fedora 9.92
--- NEW FILE en-US.html ---
Fedora 11Fedora Live Abbilder
Wie man das Fedora Live Abbild benutzt
Rechtlicher Hinweis
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Zusammenfassung
Wie man das Fedora Live Abbild benutzt1. Einf??hrung
Ein Live-Abbild ist eine risikofreie und zeiteffiziente Methode zum "Testen" des Fedora Betriebssystems auf Ihrer vertrauten Hardware. Wenn die Testphase spannend und ??berzeugend war, k??nnen Sie sich entscheiden, die Live-System Software in Ihrer normalen Computer-Umgebung zu installieren. Dieses Live-Abbild bringt eine sehr ??hnliche Erfahrung zu einem installierten Fedora, hierbie gibt es sowohl Vorteile als auch Vorbehalte. Unter Abschnitt??5, ???Vorteile??? und Abschnitt??6, ???Vorbehalte??? finden Sie weitere Informationen.
2. Was soll ich mit meinen Live-Abbild tun?
Bevor Sie Ihr Live-Abbild verwenden, lesen die den n??chsten Abschnitt, damit Sie wissen, wie Sie Fedora am besten einsetzen k??nnen. Vielleicht m??chten sie auch bei Abschnitt??4, ???Starten??? f??r Hinweise zum Starten dieser Medien nachlesen. Danach legen sie diese Medium in Ihren Computer ein und starten Sie ihn von diesem.
3. Empfohlene Hardware
Dieses Live-Abbild startet und l??uft auf den meisten Computer mit 256 MB oder mehr Arbeitsspeicher. Hat Ihr Computer 1 GB oder mehr Arbeitsspeicher, w??hlen Sie Run from RAM aus dem Startmen?? f??r bessere Leistung.
Ihr Computer muss in der Lage sein, von dem Ger??t zu starten, das das Live-Abbild enth??lt. Wenn z.B. das Live-Abbild auf CD oder DVD gespeichert ist, muss der Computer vom CD- oder DVD-Laufwerk starten k??nnen.
4. Starten
Dieser Abschnitt ist eine zus??tzlich Anleitung f??r Benutzer, f??r die das Starten des Computer bedeutet den Stromschalter zu dr??cken. Um ihr System zum Starten vom einem Live-Abbild einzurichten, schalten Sie ihren PC aus. Starten Sie ihren Computer und beobachten Sie die BIOS-Meldungen, die ihnen zeigen, welche Tasten Sie benutzen k??nnen um entweder:
ein Boot Men?? oder
das BIOS Konfigurationswerkzeug
Die Boot-Men??-Option ist zu empfehlen. Finden Sie keine solche Eingabeaufforderung, schauen Sie in das Handbuch f??r Ihr System oder Ihr Motherboard, um die richtige Tastenkombination zu erfahren. Auf vielen System wird die Taste F12, F2, F1 oder Delete verwendet.
Die meisten Computer starten von der Festplatte (oder einer der vorhandenen Festplatten, falls es mehrere gibt). Wenn Sie dieses Dokument von einer CD oder DVD lesen, dann richteten Sie ihren Computer so ein, dass er von CD oder DVD startet. Lesen Sie diese Datei von einem USB-Ger??t oder einem USB-Stick, dann richteten Sie Ihren Computer so ein, dass er von USB startet.
Wenn Sie die BIOS-Einstellungen ??ndern, notieren Sie sich das jetzige Start-Laufwerk, bevor Sie es ??ndern. Mit ihrer Notiz k??nnen Sie die urspr??ngliche Einstellungen wieder herstellen wenn Sie m??chten.
Das BIOS ??lterer Systeme hat m??glicherweise nicht die gew??nschte Auswahl, wie z.B. starten ??ber das Netzwerk. Wenn Ihr Computer nur per Floppy oder Festplatte startet, k??nnen Sie m??glicherweise diese Live-Abbild nicht nutzen.
Pr??fen Sie, ob ein neueres BIOS des Herstellers f??r Ihren Computer zur Verf??gung steht. Ein neues BIOS kann Ihnen zus??tzliche Start-Optionen bieten, muss aber sorgf??ltig eingerichtet werden. Lesen Sie das Handbuch des Herstellers f??r weiter Informationen. Andernfalls fragen Sie vielleicht einen Bekannten, ob Sie das Live-Abbild auf seinem neueren Computer ausprobieren d??rfen.
5. Vorteile
Ein Live-Abbild bietet die folgenden Vorteile:
W??hrend das Live-Abbild l??uft, k??nnen Sie es steuern und sind nicht auf Screenshots oder Optionen von anderen angewiesen. Sie haben die Freiheit auszuw??hlen, welche Aufgaben oder Anwendungen Sie erforschen m??chten.
Sie k??nnen diese Live-Abbild ausprobieren, ohne Ihre bisherige Systemumgebung, Ihre Dateien oder Ihren Desktop zu beeintr??chtigen. Beenden Sie Ihr jetziges Betriebssystem, starten Sie das Live-Abbild und anschlie??end wieder das urspr??ngliche Betriebssystem. Die vorherige Umgebung erscheint ohne Ver??nderungen.
Benutzen Sie das Live-Abbild um zu ??berpr??fen, ob Ihre Ger??te vollst??ndig erkannt und eingerichtet werden k??nnen.
Komplette Hardware-Erkennung
In einigen F??llen bietet das Live-Abbild nicht die ??bliche Hardware-Unterst??tzung eines eingerichteten Fedora-Systems. Sie k??nnen die Einrichtung aber manuell vornehmen, allerdings m??ssen Sie dies dann auch jedes Mal wiederholen, wenn Sie das Live-Abbild verwenden.
Mit dem Live-Abbild k??nnen Sie verschieden Desktop-Umgebungen wie GNOME, KDE, XFCE oder andere ausprobieren. Ihre Auswahl erfordert es nicht, die jetzige Konfiguration Ihrer Linux-Installation zu ??ndern.
6. Vorbehalte
Das Live-Abbild hat einige Nachteile, ist aber auch bequem:
W??hrend Sie das Live-Abbild verwenden, kann sich Ihr Computer viel langsamer verhalten (Reaktion auf Eingaben, Starten von Programmen), als ein auf der Festplatte installiertes System. CDs und DVDs ??bertragen Daten langsamer zum Computer als Festplatten. Es ist weniger Arbeitsspeicher verf??gbar, um Anwendungen zu laden und auszuf??hren. Wenn das Live-Abbild aus dem Arbeitsspeicher l??uft, wird mehr Arbeitsspeicher verwendet, allerdings reagiert auch das System schneller.
Um die Datenmenge zu reduzieren, sind weniger Anwendungen eingerichtet als bei einer vollst??ndigen Fedora-Installation. Auch wenn Ihre Lieblingsanwendungen nicht dabei sind, werden diese in einer vollst??ndigen Installation problemlos laufen.
Zu diesem Zeitpunkt k??nnen Sie keine Anwendungen dauerhaft zu dem Live-Abbild hinzuf??gen. Um andere Anwendungen oder neuere Versionen existierender Anwendungen auszuprobieren, m??ssen Sie Fedora auf Ihrem Computer einrichten. Zeitweise k??nnen Sie Anwendungen einrichten oder aktualisieren, wenn Sie genug Arbeitsspeicher haben. Die meisten Systeme werden wenigstens 512 MB Arbeitsspeicher dazu ben??tigen. Diese ??nderungen gehen verloren, wenn Sie Ihr Live-Abbild beenden.
??nderungen k??nnten auch zunichte gemacht werden, falls es aufgrund Speichermangels erforderlich ist, dass die Konfiguration oder die Original-Anwendung vom Live-Abbild erneut eingelesen werden muss. Die ist typisch f??r ein Live-Abbild; in einer vollst??ndigen Fedora Installation wird dies nicht auftreten.
7. Experimentieren mit dem Live-Abbild
Wenn Sie die Men??struktur erforschen, suchen Sie sich die Anwendungen aus die Sie probieren m??chten. Au??erdem k??nnen Sie die weiteren F??higkeiten ausprobieren.
7.1. Freigeben von existierenden Daten
Sie k??nnen Daten weitergeben, indem Sie Speicherger??te einh??ngen. Dies sind:
Disketten
USB Laufwerke
Festplatten-Partitionen
7.2. Machen Sie eine Sicherungskopie der Daten
Sie k??nnen das Live-Abbild verwenden, um ein Backup oder eine Kopie von Dateien zu erstellen, wenn Ihr Computer folgendes enth??lt:
einen CD- oder DVD-Brenner
eine Festplatte mit gen??gend freiem Platz
Dateien, die normalerweise in Benutzung durch das vorherige Betriebssystem sind, sind es nicht, wenn das Live-Abbild verwendet wird. Verwenden Sie das Live-Abbild, um ein Backup zu erstellen, das mit dem vorherigen Betriebssystem problematisch war.
8. Installieren von Fedora von einem Live-Abbild
Um das System aus einem Live-Abbild zu installieren, starten Sie das Live-Abbild, wie oben beschrieben, und starten Sie dann die Anwendung Install to Hard Disk vom Desktop. Verwenden Sie die Fedora Installation, um ihre Software und Einrichtung nach Ihren Bed??rfnissen dauerhaft einzurichten.
9. Wir freuen uns auf Ihr Feedback!
Wenn Sie einen Fehler in diesem Handbuch finden oder eine Idee haben, wie dieses verbessert werden k??nnte, freuen wir uns ??ber Ihr Feedback! Reichen Sie einen Fehlerbericht f??r die Komponente Documentation. in Bugzilla unter http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ ein.
Vergewissern Sie sich beim Einreichen eines Fehlerberichts die Kennung des Handbuchs mit anzugeben: Fedora_Live_images
Falls Sie uns einen Vorschlag zur Verbesserung der Dokumentation senden m??chten, sollten Sie hierzu m??glichst genaue Angaben machen. Wenn Sie einen Fehler gefunden haben, geben Sie bitte die Nummer des Abschnitts und einen Ausschnitt des Textes an, damit wir diesen leicht finden k??nnen.
A.??Revisions-Verlauf
Versionsgeschichte Version 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Konvertieren um in Publican zu erzeugen Version 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Update f??r Fedora 11 Version 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Update f??r Fedora 10.93 Version 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Update f??r Fedora 10 Version 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Update f??r Fedora 9.92
--- NEW FILE es-ES.html ---
Fedora 11Fedora Live images
How to use the Fedora Live image
Legal Notice
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstract
How to use the Fedora Live image1.??Introduction
A Live image is a low-risk and time-efficient method of "test-driving" the Fedora operating system on your own familiar hardware. If the evaluation provides a pleasant adventure, you may choose to install the Live system software to provide your normal computing environment. This Live image provides you with an experience that is very similar to running Fedora, but there are some benefits and caveats. Refer to Section??5, ???Benefits??? and Section??6, ???Caveats??? for more information.
2.??What Should I Do With My Live Image?
Before you use your Live image, read the next section to learn how to maximize your enjoyment of Fedora. You may also want to read Section??4, ???Booting??? for hints on booting from this media. Then insert this media in your computer and boot from it.
3.??Suggested Hardware
This Live system successfully boots and runs on most computers with 256 MB or more installed system memory, or RAM. If your computer has 1 GB or more installed system memory, for higher performance, select Run from RAM from the boot menu.
Your computer must have the ability to boot from the device holding the Live image media. For instance, if the Live image is on a CD or DVD, your computer must be able to boot from the CD or DVD drive.
4.??Booting
This section gives additional guidance for users whose experience with starting the computer, or "booting," is limited to pushing the power button. To set up your system to boot from the Live media, first shut down or hibernate your computer if it is not already off. Power your computer on, and watch the initial BIOS screen for a prompt that indicates which key to use for either:
a boot menu, or
the BIOS setup utility
The boot menu option is preferable. If you cannot see such a prompt, consult your manufacturer's documentation for your computer system, motherboard, or mainboard for the correct keystroke. On many systems, the required key will be F12, F2, F1, or Delete.
Most computers boot from hard disk (or one of the hard disks, if there are more than one). If you are reading this document from a CD or a DVD, then set the computer to boot from the DVD or CD drive. If you are reading this file from a USB device such as a memory stick or thumb drive, set your computer to boot from the USB device.
If you are making changes to the BIOS configuration, record the current boot device selection configuration before you change it. This record allows you to restore the original configuration if you choose to return to your previous computing environment.
The BIOS on older computers may not include a choice you desire, such as network booting. If your computer can only boot from floppy diskette or hard disk, you may be unable to experience this Live image on your computer.
You may wish to see if an updated BIOS is available from the manufacturer of your computer. A BIOS update may offer additional boot menu choices, but requires care to install properly. Consult the manufacturer's documentation for more information. Otherwise, ask a friend if you can try running this Live image on their newer computer.
5.??Benefits
The following benefits accrue with a Live image:
While running this Live image, you are in control, and are not limited to a set of screenshots or options chosen by others. Select which tasks or applications to explore with complete freedom.
You can experiment with this Live image with no disruption to your previous computing environment, documents, or desktop. Hibernate your current operating system, restart with the Live image, and restart the original operating system when finished. Your previous environment returns with no changes made.
You can use the Live image to evaluate whether all of your hardware devices are recognized and properly configured.
Full Hardware Recognition
In some cases, the Live image does not offer the full range of hardware support seeing in an installed Fedora system. You may be able to manually configure support in the Live image, but must repeat these steps each time you use the Live image.
You can use the Live image to try different desktop environments such as GNOME, KDE, XFCE, or others. None of these choices require you to reconfigure an existing Linux installation on your computer.
6.??Caveats
The Live image also involves some drawbacks in exchange for convenience:
While using this Live image, your computer may be much slower to respond or require more time to complete tasks than with a system installed to hard disk. CD and DVD discs provide data to the computer at a much slower rate than hard disks. Less of your computer's system memory is available for loading and running applications. Running the Live image from RAM trades higher memory usage for faster response times.
To fit space constraints, fewer installed applications are included than in a full installation of Fedora. Your favorite applications may not be present in this Live image, even though they may be present and run quite well in a full installation of Fedora.
At this time, you cannot permanently install new applications in the Live image. To try other applications, or newer versions of existing applications, you must generally install Fedora on your computer. You may be able to temporarily install or update applications, however, if you have sufficient system memory. Most systems require more than 512 MB RAM for installations or updates to succeed. These changes will be lost when you shut down the Live image.
Changes may also evaporate if your system's memory usage forces the system to reread the original software or settings from the Live image. This behavior is peculiar to a Live image and does not occur in a full installation of Fedora.
7.??Experimenting with the Live image
As you explore the the cascading menus on or around the desktop, look for application programs you may wish to run. In addition, you may wish to explore other capabilities.
7.1.??Sharing Existing Data
You can share data via mounting existing storage devices, such as:
floppy diskettes
USB drives
disk partitions
7.2.??Making a Backup Copy of Data
You may use this Live image to make backup or archival copies of data, if your computer system includes:
a CD or DVD burning drive
a hard disk with ample free space
Files normally in use by your previous operating system when it is running are not in use in the Live image. Therefore you can use the Live image to copy files that are problematic for backup software in the previous operating system.
8.??Installing Fedora from the Live Image
To install the system from this Live image, run the LiveOS as described above, and select the Install to Hard Disk application on the Desktop. Using the resulting Fedora installation, you can customize the software and configuration to your liking on a persistent basis.
9.??We Need Feedback!
If you find a typographical error in this manual, or if you have thought of a way to make this manual better, we would love to hear from you! Please submit a report in Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/
against the product Documentation.
When submitting a bug report, be sure to mention the manual's identifier: Fedora_Live_images
If you have a suggestion for improving the documentation, try to be as specific as possible when describing it. If you have found an error, please include the section number and some of the surrounding text so we can find it easily.
A.??Revision History
Revision History Revision 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Convert to build in Publican Revision 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Update for Fedora 11 Revision 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Update for Fedora 10.93 Revision 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Update for Fedora 10 Revision 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Update for Fedora 9.92
--- NEW FILE hu-HU.html ---
Fedora 11Imagenes vivas de Fedora
C??mo utilizar la imagen viva de Fedora
aviso legal
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Resumen
C??mo utilizar la imagen viva de Fedora1. Introducci??n
Una imagen Viva es un m??todo con el cual "probar" el sistema operativo Fedora en su hardware, sin tener que correr demasiados riegos y sin dedicarle demasiado tiempo al proceso. Si la evaluaci??n le provee una sensaci??n placentera, puede elegir instalar el sistema desde el software Vivo y obtener as?? un entorno de computaci??n normal. Esta imagen Viva le ofrece una experiencia similar a la de ejecutar Fedora, aunque con ciertos beneficios y advertencias. Para obtener mas informaci??n, consulte Secci??n??5, ???Beneficios???.
2. ??Qu?? debo hacer con mi Imagen Viva?
Antes de usar su imagen Viva, lea la siguiente secci??n para aprender c??mo aprovechar al m??ximo la utilizaci??n de Fedora. Tambi??n puede querer leer Secci??n??4, ???Arrancando??? para conocer consejos acerca de c??mo iniciar el equipo con este medio. Luego inserte este medio en su computadora, y enci??ndala.
3. Equipamiento Sugerido
Este sistema Vivo arranca y se ejecuta sin problemas en la mayor??a de las computadoras con 256 MB o m??s de memoria, o RAM. Si su computadora tiene 1 GB o m??s de memoria, para una mayor performance, elija Correr desde la RAM en el men?? de arranque.
Su computadora debe tener la habilidad de arrancar desde el dispositivo que contiene la imagen Viva. Por ejemplo, si la imagen Viva est?? en un CD o DVD, su computadora debe poder arrancar desde la unidad de CD o DVD.
4. Arrancando
Esta secci??n le da una gu??a adicional a usuarios cuya experiencia en encender la computadora o "arrancar," se limita a solamente apretar el bot??n de encedido. Para configurar su sistema para que inicie desde el medio Vivo, primero apague o suspenda su computadora si no est?? apagada. Luego enci??ndala, y f??jese en la pantalla inicial del BIOS en donde le indicar?? la tecla para:
un men?? de arranque, o
el utilitario de configuraci??n del BIOS
La opci??n del men?? de arranque es preferible. Si no puede ver tal informaci??n, consulte la documentaci??n del fabricante de la placa principal (motherboard) de su computadora, para averiguar cu??l es la tecla correcta. En muchos sistemas, la tecla es F12, F2, F1, o Supr.
La mayor??a de las computadoras arrancan desde el disco r??gido (o uno de los discos r??gidos, si hay m??s de uno). Si est?? leyendo desde un CD o DVD, entonces ponga a la computadora para que arranque desde la unidad de CD o DVD. Si est?? leyendo este archivo desde un dispositivo USB, tales como los pendrive o tarjeta de memoria, ponga su computadora para que arranque desde el dispositivo USB.
Si est?? haciendo cambios a la configuraci??n del BIOS, guarde la configuraci??n de selecci??n del dispositivo de arranque actual antes de cambiarla. Luego deber?? restaurar la configuraci??n original si elige volver al entorno de computaci??n anterior.
El BIOS en las computadoras m??s viejas puede no incluir la opci??n que Ud. desea, tales como el arranque desde la red. Si su computadora puede solamente arrancar desde un disco flexible o del r??gido, probablemente no pueda probar la imagen Viva en esa computadora.
Puede desear ver si hay una actualizaci??n del BIOS disponible desde el fabricante de su computadora. Una actualizaci??n del BIOS puede ofrecer opciones adicionales de arranque, pero requiere cuidado para instalarla correctamente. Consulte la documentaci??n del fabricante para m??s informaci??n. De lo contrario, preg??ntele a un amigo con un modelo m??s reciente, si puede usar su computadora de para probar la imagen Viva.
5. Beneficios
Los siguientes beneficios se ganan con una imagen Viva:
Mientras se corra esta imagen Viva, Ud. tiene el control, y no est?? limitado a un conjunto de pantallazos u opciones elegidas por otros. Seleccione qu?? tareas o aplicaciones explorar con total libertad.
Puede experimentar con esta imagen Viva sin interrumpir el entorno de computaci??n anterior, los documentos o el escritorio. Hiberne su sistema operativo actual, reinicie con la imagen Viva y reinicie el sistema operativo original cuando haya terminado. Su entorno previo vuelve sin que se hayan hecho cambios.
Puede usar la imagen Viva para evaluar si todos los dispositivos de su computadora son reconocidos y configurados apropiadamente.
Reconocimiento de Hardware Total
En algunos casos, la imagen Viva no ofrece un rango completo de soporte de hardware, como se ve en un sistema de Fedora Instalado. Puede configurar a mano dicho soporte en la imagen Viva, pero deber?? repetir los pasos cada vez que use la imagen.
Puede usar la imagen Viva para intentar distintos entornos de escritorios como GNOME, KDE, XFCE u otros. Ninguna de estas elecciones requieren que reconfigure una instalaci??n de Linux existente en su computadora.
6. Advertencias
La imagen Viva tambi??n involucra algunas desventajas a cambio de la coveniencia:
Mientras se utilice esta imagen Viva, si comparamos el desempe??o de su equipo con uno cuyo sistema operativo est?? efectivamente instalado en el disco r??gido, tal vez su computadora funcione m??s lentamente y necesite m??s tiempo para completar las tareas. Los discos CD y DVD proveen datos a una velocidad muy inferior que los discos r??gidos. La cantidad de memoria disponible del sistema de su computadora ser?? memor para cargar y ejecutar aplicaciones. Ejecutar im??genes Vivas desde la RAM negocia mayor uso de memoria, a cambio de tiempos de respuestas mayores.
Para caber en el espacio, se incluyen menos aplicaciones instaladas que en una instalaci??n completa de Fedora. Sus aplicaciones favoritas pueden no estar presente en esta imagen Viva, aunque puedan estar presentes y funcionar bien en una instalaci??n completa de Fedora.
En este momento, no puede instalar nuevas aplicaciones en forma permanente en la imagen Viva. Para probar otras aplicaciones, o versiones m??s nuevas de aplicaciones existentes, necesitar?? instalar Fedora en su computadora. Sin embargo, puede instalar o actualizar temporalmente las aplicaciones, si es que tiene suficiente memoria. La mayor??a de los sistemas requieren m??s de 512 MB RAM para que se pueda instalar y actualizar. Estos cambios se perder??n cuando cierre el sistema de la imagen Viva.
Los cambios tambi??n pueden perderse si el uso de la memoria de su sistema lo obliga a releer el software original, o la configuraci??n desde la imagen Viva. Este comportamiento es propio de las im??genes Viva y no sucede en una instalaci??n completa de Fedora.
7. Experimentando con la Imagen Viva
A medida que explora la cascada de men??es dentro o alrededor del escritorio, busque los programas de aplicaciones que puede desear ejecutar. Adem??s, puede desear explorar otras capacidades.
7.1. Compartici??n de Datos Existentes
Puede compartir datos v??a el montaje de dispositivos de almacenamiento existentes, tales como:
discos flexibles
discos USB
particiones de disco
7.2. Hacer una Copia de Respaldo de los Datos
Puede usar esta imagen Viva para hacer un respaldo de datos, si su computadora incluye:
una unidad de grabaci??n de CD o DVD
un disco r??gido con amplio espacio libre
Los archivos normalmente en uso por su sistema operativo anterior cuando est?? en ejecuci??n, no son usados por la imagen Viva. Por tal raz??n, puede usar la imagen Viva para copiar los archivos que son problem??ticos para respaldar en el sistema operativo anterior.
8. Instalaci??n de Fedora desde la Imagen Viva
Para instalar el sistema desde esta imagen Viva, corra el SOVivo como se describe m??s arriba, y seleccione la aplicaci??n Instalar en el Disco R??gido del escritorio. Usando la instalaci??n de Fedora resultante, puede personalizar la configuraci??n y el software de manera permanente.
9. ??Necesitamos sus comentarios!
Si encuentra un error tipogr??fico en este manual o si sabe de alguna manera de mejorarlo, nos gustar??a escuchar sus sugerencias. Por favor complete un reporte en Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ usando el producto Documentation.
Cuando env??e un reporte de error no olvide mencionar el identificador del manual: Fedora_Live_images
Si tiene una sugerencia para mejorar la documentaci??n, intente ser tan espec??fico como sea posible cuando describa su sugerencia. Si ha encontrado un error, por favor incluya el n??mero de secci??n y parte del texto que rodea el error para que podamos encontrarlo m??s f??cilmente.
A.??Historial de revisiones
Historial de revisiones Revisi??n 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Convertir para construir en Publican Revisi??n 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Actualizaci??n para Fedora 11 Revisi??n 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Actualizaci??n para Fedora 10.93 Revisi??n 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Actualizaci??n para Fedora 10 Revisi??n 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Actualizaci??n para Fedora 9.92
***** Error reading new file: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'index.php'
--- NEW FILE nl-NL.html ---
Fedora 11Fedora ??l?? k??pek
Hogyan haszn??ljuk a Fedora ??l?? k??pet
jogi k??zlem??ny
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Kivonat
Hogyan haszn??ljuk a Fedora ??l?? k??pet1. Bevezet??
Az ??l?? k??p a Fedora oper??ci??s rendszer az ??n saj??t g??p??n t??rt??n?? "tesztvezet??s??nek" kis kock??zat?? ??s id??hat??kony m??dja. Ha az ??rt??kel??s kellemes ??lm??nyr??l tan??skodik, akkor v??laszthatja az ??l?? rendszer telep??t??s??t a norm??lis sz??m??t??g??p k??rnyezetbe. Ez az ??l?? k??p a Fedora futtat??s??hoz nagyon hasonl?? ??lm??nyt ny??jt, de van n??mi el??nye illetve h??tr??nya. Tov??bbi tudnival??k??rt ld. 5. szakasz - El??ny??k ??s 6. szakasz - Figyelmeztet??sek.
2. Mihez kezdjek az ??l?? k??pemmel?
Miel??tt haszn??lni kezdi az ??l?? k??pet, olvassa el a k??vetkez?? bekezd??st, amib??l megtudja, hogyan maximaliz??lja a Fedora ??lvezet??t. ??rdemes m??g elolvasni a 4. szakasz - Rendszerind??t??s c??m?? r??szt a tippek??rt err??l az adathordoz??r??l t??rt??n?? rendszerind??t??shoz. Azut??n tegye be a hordoz??t a sz??m??t??g??pbe, ??s ind??tsa r??la a rendszert.
3. Aj??nlott hardver
Az ??l?? rendszer sikeresen indul ??s fut a legt??bb sz??m??t??g??pen, amiben van 256 MiB vagy t??bb rendszermem??ria (RAM). Ha a sz??m??t??g??pben legal??bb 1 GiB rendszermem??ria van, akkor a nagyobb teljes??tm??ny??rt v??lassza a rendszerind??t?? Run from RAM men??pontj??t.
A sz??m??t??g??pnek k??pesnek kell lennie bet??lteni a rendszert az ??l?? k??p adathordoz??j??r??l. P??ld??ul, ha az ??l?? k??p egy CD-n vagy DVD-n van, akkor a g??pnek tudnia be kell tudnia t??lteni a rendszert a CD vagy DVD egys??gr??l.
4. Rendszerind??t??s
E szakasz tov??bbi ??tmutat??st ad a haszn??l??knak, akik tud??sa a rendszerind??t??sr??l a bekapcsol?? gomb megnyom??s??ra korl??toz??dik. Az ??l?? k??pr??l t??rt??n?? rendszerind??t??shoz el??sz??r le kell kapcsolni vagy hibern??lni a sz??m??t??g??pet, ha ??ppen nem lenne kikapcsolva. Kapcsolja be, ??s figyelje a kezdeti BIOS k??perny??n az ??zenetet, ami megmondja, melyik gombot kell megnyomni:
egy rendszerind??t?? men??h??z, vagy
a BIOS be??ll??t?? seg??dprogramhoz
Jobban szeretj??k a rendszerbet??lt?? men??t v??lasztani. Ha nincs eff??le ??zenet, n??zze meg a gy??rt?? dokument??ci??j??t a sz??m??t??g??pr??l vagy az alaplapr??l a megfelel?? billenty????rt. A legt??bb rendszerben a sz??ks??ges billenty?? az F12, F2, F1, vagy a Delete.
A legt??bb sz??m??t??g??p merevlemezr??l indul (vagy azok egyik??r??l, ha t??bb van). Ha e dokumentumot egy CD-r??l vagy DVD-r??l olvassa, akkor ??ll??tsa be a sz??m??t??g??pet, hogy a DVD vagy a CD egys??gr??l induljon. Ha e f??jlt USB eszk??zr??l olvassa (pendrive), akkor ??ll??tsa be a sz??m??t??g??pet, hogy USB eszk??zr??l induljon.
Ha megv??ltoztatja a BIOS be??ll??t??sokat, akkor jegyezze fel a megl??v?? bet??lt?? eszk??z v??laszt??st, miel??tt megv??ltoztatja azt. Ez a feljegyz??s seg??ti k??s??bb, hogy vissza??ll??tsa az eredeti be??ll??t??st, amikor vissza akar t??rni a kor??bbi k??rnyezetbe.
R??gebbi g??pekben a BIOS tal??n nem tartalmazza a k??v??nt v??laszt??st, mint pl. a h??l??zati rendszerind??t??s. Ha a sz??m??t??g??p csak hajl??kony vagy merevlemezr??l tud indulni, akkor nem tudja megtapasztalni ezt az ??l?? k??pet a sz??m??t??g??p??n.
Tal??n l??tni szeretn??, hogy van-e el??rhet?? friss??tett BIOS a sz??m??t??g??pgy??rt??j??t??l. Egy BIOS friss??t??s tal??n aj??nlhat tov??bbi v??laszt??si lehet??s??geket a bet??lt?? men??ben, de ??vatoss??g sz??ks??ges, hogy j??l telep??tse. N??zze meg a gy??rt?? dokument??ci??j??t tov??bbi t??j??koztat??s??rt. K??l??nben, k??rje meg egy bar??tj??t, ha nem tudja a saj??t g??p??n kipr??b??lni ezt az ??l?? k??pet, hogy az ?? ??jabb g??p??n pr??b??lj??k ki.
5. El??ny??k
A k??vetkez?? el??ny??k halmoz??dnak egy ??l?? k??ppel:
Ezt az ??l?? k??pet futtatva ??n ir??ny??t, ??s nem korl??tozz??k n??h??ny k??perny??k??pre vagy m??sok ??ltal v??lasztott dolgokra. V??lassza ki, melyik munk??t vagy alkalmaz??st akarja felfedezni teljesen szabadon.
A kor??bbi sz??m??t??g??pes k??rnyezet, dokumentumok vagy asztal megzavar??sa n??lk??l k??s??rletezhet ezzel az ??l?? k??ppel. Hibern??lja a jelenlegi oper??ci??s rendszer??t, ind??tsa ??jra az ??l?? k??ppel, majd ind??tsa ??jra az eredeti oper??ci??s rendszert, amikor v??gzett. Az el??z?? k??rnyezet v??ltozatlanul t??r vissza.
Haszn??lhatja az ??l?? k??ppel meg??llap??thatja, hogy minden hardver eszk??zt felismer a rendszer, ??s rendesen be??ll??tja azokat.
Teljes hardverfelismer??s
N??h??ny esetben az ??l?? k??p nem t??mogat minden hardvert, amit egy telep??tett Fedora rendszer. Tal??n k??zi ??ton be??ll??that?? az ??l?? k??p, de ezt az ??l?? k??p minden egyes haszn??latakor el kell v??geznie.
Haszn??lhatja az ??l?? k??pet, hogy k??l??nb??z?? asztal k??rnyezeteket pr??b??ljon ki mint a GNOME, KDE, XFCE vagy m??sok. Ezek kiv??laszt??sa nem ig??nyli a megl??v?? Linux telep??t??s ??t??ll??t??s??t a sz??m??t??g??pen.
6. Figyelmeztet??sek
Az ??l?? k??pnek van n??h??ny h??tr??nya is a k??nyelem??rt cser??be:
Am??g ezt az ??l?? k??pet haszn??lja, a sz??m??t??g??pe sokkal lassabb is lehet, vagy t??bb id??t ig??nyelhet a feladatok elv??gz??s??hez, mint egy merevlemezre telep??tett rendszer. CD ??s DVD lemezek sokkal lassabban adj??k az adatokat, mint a merevlemezek. A rendszermem??ri??b??l is kevesebb ??ll rendelkez??sre alkalmaz??sok bet??lt??s??re ??s futtat??s??ra. Az ??l?? k??p RAM-b??l val?? futtat??sa nagyobb mem??riahaszn??lattal j??r a r??videbb v??laszid????rt cser??be.
A korl??tozott hely miatt, kevesebb telep??tett alkalmaz??s van, mint egy teljes telep??tett Fedor??ban. A kedvenc alkalmaz??sai tal??n nincsenek ezen az ??l?? k??pen, de ott lehetnek, ??s j??l futhatnak egy teljes Fedora telep??t??sen.
Most nem telep??thet maradand?? ??j alkalmaz??sokat az ??l?? k??pre. M??s alkalmaz??sok kipr??b??l??s??hoz, vagy megl??v?? alkalmaz??sok ??jabb v??ltozataihoz, ??ltal??ban telep??tenie kell Fedor??t a sz??m??t??g??pre. Azonban ideiglenesen telep??thet ??s friss??thet alkalmaz??sokat, ha van el??g rendszermem??ri??ja. A legt??bb rendszer 512 MiB RAM-n??l t??bbet ig??nyel sikeres telep??t??shez vagy friss??t??shez. Ezek a v??ltoz??sok elvesznek, amikor kikapcsolja az ??l?? k??pet.
V??ltoz??sok akkor is elillanhatnak, ha a rendszer mem??riahaszn??lata miatt k??nyszer??l az eredeti szoftvert vagy be??ll??t??st ??jraolvasni az ??l?? k??pr??l. Ez a viselked??s csak ??l?? k??pre jellemz?? ??s nem t??rt??nik meg a Fedora teljes telep??t??s??vel.
7. K??s??rletez??s az ??l?? k??ppel
Ahogy felfedezi az al??hull?? men??ket, vagy k??r??ln??z az asztalon, keressen alkalmaz??s programokat, amit szeretne futtatni. Emellett k??v??nhat felfedezni m??s k??pess??geket is.
7.1. Megl??v?? adatok megoszt??sa
Megoszthat adatokat megl??v?? t??rol?? eszk??z??k becsatol??s??val:
hajl??kony lemezek
USB eszk??z??k
lemezr??szek
7.2. Adatok biztons??gi ment??se
Haszn??lhatja ezt az ??l?? k??pet biztons??gi ment??s vagy arch??vum k??sz??t??s??re, ha a sz??m??t??g??p??ben van:
CD vagy DVD p??rk??l??
merevlemez ??ri??si ??res hellyel
A kor??bbi oper??ci??s rendszere ??ltal haszn??lt f??jlokat rendszerint nem haszn??lja az ??l?? k??ppel. Ez??rt az ??l?? k??pet nyugodtan haszn??lhatja arra, hogy olyan f??jlokat m??soljon, amik probl??m??sak az el??z?? oper??ci??s rendszerben fut?? biztons??gi ment?? program eset??ben.
8. Fedora telep??t??se az ??l?? k??pr??l
Az ??l?? k??pr??l t??rt??n?? telep??t??shez futtassa az ??l?? k??pet a fent le??rtak szerint, ??s v??lassza a Telep??t??s merevlemezre alkalmaz??st az asztalon. Az eredm??ny??l kapott Fedora rendszert haszn??lva tetsz??se szerint maradand?? jelleggel testreszabhatja a szoftvert ??s be??ll??t??sait.
9. Visszajelz??s kell nek??nk!
Ha nyomdahib??t tal??l e k??zik??nyvben, vagy b??rmilyen gondolata t??mad arr??l, hogyan jav??thatn??nk e k??zik??nyvet, szeretn??nk tudni r??la! K??rem adjon fel egy jelent??st a Bugzill??ba: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ a k??vetkez?? term??kre: Documentation.
Hibajelent??s felad??sa sor??n gy??z??dj??n meg arr??l, hogy megeml??tette a k??zik??nyv azonos??t??j??t: Fedora_Live_images
Ha akad b??rmilyen az irat jav??t??s??t c??lz?? javaslata, pr??b??lja azt olyan r??szletesen le??rni, amennyire csak lehets??ges. Ha hib??t tal??lt, k??rem adja meg a szakasz sz??m??t ??s a sz??vegk??rnyezetet, hogy k??nnyen megtal??ljuk.
A.??M??dos??t??si el??zm??nyek
Verzi??t??rt??net Verzi?? 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
??t??ltet??s Publicanbe Verzi?? 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Friss??t??s Fedora 11-re Verzi?? 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Friss??t??s Fedora 10.93-ra Verzi?? 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Friss??t??s Fedora 10-re Verzi?? 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Friss??t??s Fedora 9.92-re
--- NEW FILE pl-PL.html ---
Fedora 11Fedora Live images
Hoe gebruik je de Fedora Live image
Bericht
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Samenvatting
Hoe gebruik je de Fedora Live image1. Inleiding
Een Live image is een methode om tijd efficient en met lage risico het Fedora besturingssysteem op je eigen vertrouwde computer uit te proberen. Als de evaluatie een plezierig avontuur blijkt te zijn, kun je er voor kiezen om het Live software systeem te installeren als je normale computer omgeving. Deze Live image geeft je een ervaring die heel veel lijkt op het draaien van Fedora, echter er zijn enkele voordelen en nadelen. Refereer naar Paragraaf??5, ???Voordelen??? en Paragraaf??6, ???Nadelen??? voor meer informatie.
2. Wat Moet Ik Met Mijn Live Image Doen?
Voordat je je Live image gebruikt, lees de volgende paragraaf om te leren hoe je maximaal plezier met Fedora kan hebben. Je wilt misschien ook Paragraaf??4, ???Opstarten??? lezen voor tips om vanaf deze media op te starten. Daarna plaats je deze media in je computer en start er mee op.
3. Aanbevolen Hardware
Dit Live systeem start op en draait met succes op de meeste omputers met 258 MB of meer systeem geheugen, of RAM. Als je computer 1 GB of meer systeem geheugen heeft, selecteer je Run from RAM van het opstart menu voor een hogere prestatie.
Je computer moet de mogelijk hebben om op te starten van het apparaat dat de Live image media bevat. Bijvoorbeeld, als de Live image op een CD of DVD staat, moet je computer in staat zijn om van het CD of DVD schijfstation op te starten.
4. Opstarten
Deze sectie geeft een extra leidraad voor gebruikers waarvoor de ervaring met het aanzetten van de computer, of het opstarten, beperkt is tot het drukken op de aan knop. Om je computer voor te bereiden om op te starten van de Live media, zet je eerst je computer uit als dat niet al het geval is. Zet je computer aan, en let op het eerste BIOS scherm voor een prompt dat aangeeft welke toets je moet gebruiken voor:
een opstart (boot) menu, of
het BIOS setup programma
De boot menu optie heeft de voorkeur. Als je zo'n prompt niet ziet, raadpleeg je de documentatie van de fabrikant van je computer systeem of moederbord voor de juiste toets. Voor veel systemen zal dit de F12, F2, F1, of Delete toets zijn.
De meeste computers starten op vanaf de harde schijf (of van een van de harde schijven, als er meerdere zijn). Als je dit document leest van van een CD of DVD, dan stel je je computer in om op te starten van het DVD of CD schijfstation. Als je dit bestand leest vanaf een USB pen, stel je je computer in om op te starten van het USB apparaat.
Als je veranderingen maakt in de BIOS instellingen, noteer dan de huidige boot selectie instelling voordat je deze verandert. Deze notitie helpt je om de originele instellingen te herstellen als je er voor kiest om terug te gaan naar je vorige computer omgeving.
De BIOS van oudere computers missen misschien de keuze die je nodig hebt, zoals opstarten via het netwerk. Als je computer alleen kan opstarten van een floppy diskette of van een harde schijf, dat ben je niet in staat om deze Live image op je computer mee te maken.
Je kunt kijken of er een bijgewerkte BIOS beschikbaar is van de fabrikant van je computer. Een bijgewerkte BIOS geeft misschien extra opstart menu keuzes, maar vereist voorzichtigheid om het correct te installeren. Raadpleeg de documentatie van de fabrikant voor meer informatie. Vraag anders een vriend of je deze Live image op zijn nieuwere computer uit mag proberen.
5. Voordelen
De volgende voordelen horen bij een Live image:
Als je deze Live image draait, heb jij de controle en ben je niet beperkt tot een aantal scherm opnames of opties gekozen door anderen. Je kunt in complete vrijheid kiezen welke taken of toepassingen je wilt onderzoeken.
Je kunt met deze Live image experimenteren zonder je vorige computer omgeving, documenten, of werkblad te beschadigen. Stop je huidige besturingssysteem, start opnieuw op met de Live image, en start je originele besturingssysteem opnieuw op als je klaar bent. Je vorige omgeving komt terug zonder dat er veranderingen gemaakt zijn.
Je kunt de Live image gebruiken om te kijken of alle hardware herkent en juist ingesteld wordt.
Volledige Hardware Herkenning
In sommige gevallen geeft de Live image niet de volledige reeks hardware ondersteuning zoals dit gebeurt in een geinstalleerd Fedora systeem. Je kunt in staat zijn om ondersteuning handmatig in de Live image in te stellen, maar je moet deze stappen dan herhalen iedere keer als de Live image gebruikt.
Je kunt de Live image gebruiken om verschillende werkblad omgevingen uit te proberen, zoals GNOME, KDE, XFCE, of andere. Geen van deze keuzes vereist dat je de instellingen van een bestaande Linux installatie op je computer moet veranderen.
6. Nadelen
De Live image heeft ook enkele nadelen in ruil van het gemak:
Als je deze Live image gebruikt, dan kan je computer veel langzamer zijn in zijn reacties of meer tijd nodig hebben om een taak af te maken vergeleken met een systeem dat op de harde schijf geinstalleerd is. CD en DVD schijven leveren de gegevens veel langzamer aan de computer dan harde schijven. Er is minder systeem geheugen beschikbaar voor het laden en draaien van toepassingen. Het draaien van de Live image vanuit RAM ruilt hoger geheugen gebruik uit tegen snellere reactie tijden.
Door de ruimte beperking zijn minder toepassingen beschikbaar dan in een volledige installatie van Fedora. Jouw favoriete toepassing is misschien niet aanwezig in deze Live image, hoewel deze aanwezig kan zijn en erg goed finctioneert in een volledige installatie van Fedora.
Op dit moment kun je geen nieuwe toepassingen permanent toevoegen aan de Live image. Om andere toepassingen uit te proberen, of nieuwere versies van bestaande toepassingen, moet je in het algemeen Fedora op je computer installeren. Je kunt in staat zijn om tijdelijk toepassingen te installeren of te vernieuwen, mits je voldoende systeem geheugen hebt. De meeste systemen vereisen meer dan 512 MB RAM voor succesvolle installaties of vernieuwingen. Deze veranderingen gaan verloren zodra je de Live image uit zet.
Veranderingen kunnen ook verdwijnen als het geheugen gebruik van je systeem het systeem forceert om de oorspronkelijke instellingen van de Live image opnieuw in te lezen. Dit gedrag is eigen aan een Live image en doet zich niet voor in een volledige installatie van Fedora.
7. Experimenteren met de Live image
Als je de uitklappende menus op of rondom het werkblad verkent, let dan op toepassings programma's die je misschien wilt proberen. Bovendien wil je misschien andere mogelijkheden verkennen.
7.1. Het Delen van Bestaande Data
Je kunt data delen met het aankoppelen van bestaande geheugen apparaten, zoals:
floppy diskettes
USB apparaten
schijf partities
7.2. Het Maken van een Backup Copie van Data
Je kunt deze Live image gebruiken om een backup of archief afschriften van data te maken, als je computer systeem het volgende bevat:
een CD of DVD brand apparaat
een harde schijf met overvloedig vrije ruimte
Bestanden die normaal gebruikt worden door je vorige besturingssysteem als het in gebruik is worden niet gebruikt door de Live image. Daarom kun de de Live image gebruiken om bestanden te copieren die een probleem vormen voor backup software in je vorige besturingssysteem.
8. Fedora Installeren vanaf de Live Image
Om het systeem vanaf deze Live image te installeren, start je de LiveOS op zoals hierboven beschreven, en je selecteert de Install to Hard Disk toepassing op het werkblad. Door gebruik te maken van de resulterende Fedora installatie, kun je de software en instellingen aanpassen naar behoefte op permanente basis.
9. We hebben terugkoppeling nodig!
Indien u een typografische fout in deze handleiding vindt, of u weet een manier om deze handleiding te verbeteren, zouden wij dat graag van u horen! Meldt u alstublieft fouten in de uitgave Documentation via Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/.
Indien u fouten meldt, vergeet dan alstublieft niet het kenmerk: Fedora_Live_images te vermelden.
Indien u suggesties hebt om de documentatie te verbeteren, probeer dan zo duidelijk mogelijk deze suggesties te omschrijven. Indien u fouten hebt ontdekt, vermeldt dan alstublieft het sectienummer en wat omringende tekst, opdat we de fout makkelijker kunnen vinden.
A.??Herzieningsgeschiedenis
Wijzigingen Herziening 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Converteren voor het bouwen met Publican Herziening 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Vernieuwing voor Fedora 11 Herziening 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Vernieuwing voor Fedora 10.93 Herziening 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Vernieuwing voor Fedora 10 Herziening 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Vernieuwing voor Fedora 9.92
--- NEW FILE sr-Latn-RS.html ---
Fedora 11Obrazy Live Fedory
Jak u??ywa?? obrazu Live Fedory
informacja prawna
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstrakt
Jak u??ywa?? obrazu Live Fedory1. Wst??p
Obraz Live jest bezpieczn?? i ma??o czasoch??onn?? metod?? sprawdzenia systemu operacyjnego Fedora na w??asnym sprz??cie. Je??li spodoba ci si??, mo??esz zainstalowa?? oprogramowanie systemu Live na swoim komputerze. Ten obraz Live dostarcza ??rodowisko bardzo podobne do uruchomionej Fedory, ale ma te?? swoje zalety i wady. Zobacz Sekcja??5, ???Zalety??? i Sekcja??6, ???Wady???, aby dowiedzie?? si?? wi??cej.
2. Co powinienem zrobi?? z obrazem Live?
Zanim u??yjesz obrazu Live, przeczytaj nast??pn?? sekcj??, aby dowiedzie?? si??, jak najlepiej skorzysta?? z Fedory. Mo??esz tak??e przeczyta?? Sekcja??4, ???Uruchamianie???, aby uzyska?? podpowiedzi na temat uruchamiania z tego no??nika. Umie???? ten no??nik w komputerze i uruchom go.
3. Sugerowany sprz??t
Ten system Live mo??na uruchomi?? na wi??kszo??ci komputer??w z 256 MB lub wi??cej zainstalowanej pami??ci systemowej (RAM). Je??li komputer ma 1 GB lub wi??cej pami??ci, wybierz Uruchom z RAM-u w menu startowym w celu zwi??kszenia wydajno??ci.
Komputer mus posiada?? mo??liwo???? uruchamiania z urz??dzenia przechowuj??cego obraz no??nika Live. Na przyk??ad, je??li obraz Live znajduje si?? na CD lub DVD, komputer musi mie?? mo??liwo???? uruchomienia z nap??du CD lub DVD.
4. Uruchamianie
Ta sekcja podaje dodatkowe porady dla u??ytkownik??w, kt??rych wiedza o uruchamianiu komputera ogranicza si?? do naci??ni??cia w????cznika zasilania. Aby ustawi?? system do uruchamiania z no??nika Live, najpierw wy????cz go lub przejd?? do stanu hibernacji, je??li nie jest jeszcze wy????czony. W????cz komputer i przyjrzyj si?? pocz??tkowemu ekranowi BIOS-u. Zaczekaj na tekst, kt??ry wska??e klawisz, jakiego powiniene?? u??y??, aby przej???? do:
menu startowego lub
narz??dzia ustawiania BIOS-u
Najlepiej jest, je??li pojawi si?? menu startowe. Je??li taki tekst si?? nie pojawi, mo??esz go poszuka?? w dokumentacji komputera lub p??yty g????wnej. W wielu systemach wymagany klawisz to F12, F2, F1 lub Delete.
Wi??kszo???? komputer??w jest uruchamianych z dysku twardego (lub z jednego z dysk??w, je??li jest wi??cej ni?? jeden). Je??li czytasz ten dokument z CD lub DVD, ustaw komputer, aby uruchamia?? si?? z nap??du CD lub DVD. Je??li czytasz ten plik z urz??dzenia USB, ustaw komputer, aby uruchamia?? si?? z urz??dzenia USB.
Je??li zmieniasz co?? w konfiguracji BIOS-u, zapisz sobie obecny wyb??r urz??dze??, zanim to zrobisz. Pozwoli ci to na przywr??cenie oryginalnej konfiguracji, je??li b??dziesz chcia?? wr??ci?? do poprzedniego ??rodowiska.
BIOS starszych komputer??w mo??e nie zawiera?? danej funkcji, jak na przyk??ad uruchamiania sieciowego. Je??li komputer mo??e si?? uruchamia?? tylko z dyskietki lub twardego dysku, by?? mo??e nie b??dziesz m??g?? u??y?? obrazu Live na swoim komputerze.
Mo??esz sprawdzi??, czy producent komputera udost??pnia zaktualizowany BIOS. Aktualizacja BIOS-u mo??e udost??pni?? dodatkowe opcje menu startowego, ale wymaga uwa??nego i poprawnego zainstalowania. Zobacz dokumentacj?? producenta, aby dowiedzie?? si?? wi??cej. Mo??esz te?? poprosi?? przyjaciela, aby pozwoli?? ci uruchomi?? ten obraz Live na jego nowszym komputerze.
5. Zalety
Obraz Live ma nast??puj??ce zalety:
Je??li uruchamiasz obraz Live, kontrolujesz go i nie jest jeste?? ograniczony do zestaw??w zrzut??w ekranu czy opcji wybranych przez innych. Wybierz, jakie zadania lub aplikacje chcesz spr??bowa??. Masz ca??kowit?? swobod??.
Mo??esz eksperymentowa?? z obrazem Live bez naruszania poprzedniego ??rodowiska, dokument??w czy pulpitu. Hibernuj obecny system operacyjny, uruchom komputer ponownie za pomoc?? obrazu Live, a kiedy sko??czysz, ponownie uruchom oryginalny system operacyjny. Poprzednie ??rodowisko powr??ci bez ??adnych zmian.
Mo??esz u??y?? obrazu Live, aby sprawdzi??, czy wszystkie urz??dzenia sprz??towe s?? rozpoznawane i poprawnie skonfigurowane.
Pe??ne rozpoznanie sprz??tu
W niekt??rych przypadkach obraz Live nie oferuje pe??nego zakresu obs??ugi sprz??tu znanego z zainstalowanego systemu Fedora. Mo??esz r??cznie skonfigurowa?? obs??ug?? sprz??tu w obrazie Live, ale musisz powt??rzy?? te kroki za ka??dym razem, kiedy u??ywasz obrazu Live.
Mo??esz u??y?? obrazu Live, aby wypr??bowa?? r????ne ??rodowiska graficzne, takie jak GNOME, KDE, XFCE i inne. ??adna z tych mo??liwo??ci nie wymaga ponownego skonfigurowania istniej??cej na komputerze instalacji Linuksa.
6. Wady
Obraz Live ma tak??e kilka wad:
Kiedy u??ywasz obrazu Live, komputer mo??e du??o wolniej odpowiada?? lub wymaga?? wi??cej czasu na zako??czenie zada?? ni?? system zainstalowany na twardym dysku. P??yty CD i DVD dostarczaj?? dane komputerowi du??o wolniej od dysku twardego. Do wczytywania i dzia??ania aplikacji dost??pne jest mniej pami??ci systemowej komputera. Uruchamianie obrazu Live z pami??ci RAM zamienia wi??cej pami??ci na szybsze czasy dost??pu.
Aby zmie??ci?? si?? na ograniczonej przestrzeni, do????czone jest mniej aplikacji ni?? w pe??nej instalacji Fedory. Twoja ulubiona aplikacja mo??e nie by?? obecna w obrazie Live, nawet je??li mo??e znajdowa?? si?? i ca??kiem dobrze dzia??a?? w pe??nej instalacji Fedory.
Na razie nie mo??na zainstalowa?? nowych aplikacji w obrazie Live na sta??e. Aby wypr??bowa?? inne aplikacje lub nowsze wersje zainstalowanych aplikacji, musisz zainstalowa?? Fedor?? na komputerze. Mo??esz tymczasowo instalowa?? lub aktualizowa?? aplikacje, je??li masz wystarczaj??c?? ilo???? pami??ci systemowej. Wi??kszo???? system??w wymaga wi??cej ni?? 512 MB RAM-u, aby mo??na by??o to robi??.Te zmiany zostan?? utracone, kiedy wy????czysz obraz Live.
Zmiany zostan?? tak??e utracone, je??li u??ycie pami??ci systemowej wymusi na systemie, aby ponownie odczyta?? oryginalne oprogramowanie lub ustawienia z obrazu Live. To zachowanie jest typowe dla obrazu Live i nie wyst??puje w pe??nej instalacji Fedory.
7. Eksperymentowanie z obrazem Live
Mo??esz bada?? menu i pulpit, poszuka?? program??w, kt??re mo??esz zechcie?? uruchomi??. Dodatkowo mo??esz zbada?? te?? inne mo??liwo??ci.
7.1. Wsp????dzielenie istniej??cych danych
Mo??esz wsp????dzieli?? dane montuj??c istniej??ce urz??dzenia pami??ci masowej, takie jak:
dyskietki
nap??dy UDB
partycje dysku
7.2. Tworzenie kopii zapasowej danych
Mo??esz u??y?? tego obrazu Live, aby utworzy?? kopie zapasowe lub archiwalne kopie danych, je??li komputer zawiera:
nagrywark?? CD lub DVD
dysk twardy z du???? ilo??ci?? wolnego miejsca
Pliki normalnie u??ywane przez poprzedni system operacyjny nie s?? u??ywane przez obraz Live. Mo??esz wi??c u??y?? obrazu live, aby skopiowa?? pliki wywo??uj??ce problemy oprogramowaniu do tworzenia kopii zapasowych w poprzednim systemie.
8. Instalowanie Fedory z obrazu Live
Aby zainstalowa?? system z tego obrazu Live, uruchom go tak, jak opisano powy??ej i wybierz aplikacj?? Zainstaluj na dysk twardy na pulpicie. U??ywaj??c zainstalowanej Fedory, mo??esz dostosowa?? oprogramowanie i konfiguracj?? wed??ug w??asnego uznania na sta??e.
9. Opinie s?? mile widziane
Je??li znajdziesz b????d typograficzny w tym podr??czniku lub masz pomys?? jak go ulepszy??, skontaktuj si?? z nami. Prosimy wys??a?? raport w Bugzilli: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ w produkcie Documentation.
Wysy??aj??c raport b????du, upewnij si??, ??e wspomnia??e?? identyfikator podr??cznika: Fedora_Live_images
Je??li masz sugestie, jak ulepszy?? dokumentacj??, postaraj si?? by?? jak najbardziej szczeg????owy opisuj??c sw??j pomys??. Je??li znalaz??e?? b????d, do????cz numer sekcji i poblisk?? cze???? tekstu, aby??my mogli ??atwo go znale????.
A.??Historia wersji
Historia zmian Zmiana 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Przekonwertowanie do budowania w Publicanie Zmiana 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Aktualizacja dla Fedory 11 Zmiana 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Aktualizacja dla Fedory 10.93 Zmiana 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Aktualizacja dla Fedory 10 Zmiana 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Aktualizacja dla Fedory 9.92
--- NEW FILE sr-RS.html ---
Fedora 11Fedora ??ivi otisci
Kako koristiti Fedora ??ivi otisak
pravna napomena
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Sa??etak
Kako koristiti Fedora ??ivi otisak1.??Uvod
??ivi otisak je vremenski efikasan metod niskog rizika za ???probnu vo??nju??? Fedora operativnog sistema na vama poznatom hardveru. Ako proba pro??e kao prijatna avantura, mo??ete odabrati da instalirate ??ivi sistemski softver kako bi dobili normalno ra??unarsko okru??enje. Ovaj ??ivi otisak ??e vam pru??iti iskustvo koje je veoma sli??no pokretanju Fedora sistema, ali sa nekim dobitima i za??koljicama. Pogledajte Odeljak??5, ???Dobiti??? i Odeljak??6, ???Za??koljice??? za vi??e informacija.
2.????ta bi trebalo da uradim sa svojim ??ivim otiskom?
Pre kori????enja ??ivog otiska, pro??itajte naredni odeljak da biste nau??ili kako da uve??ate u??itak Fedora sistema. Mo??da bi tako??e trebalo da pro??itate Odeljak??4, ???Pokretanje??? za savete kako da pokrenete sistem sa ovog medija. Potom ubacite medij u ra??unar i pokrenite sistem sa njega.
3.??Preporu??eni hardver
Ovaj ??ivi sistem se uspe??no pokre??e na ve??ini ra??unara sa 256 MB ili vi??e instalirane sistemske memorije, takozvanog RAM-a. Ako va?? ra??unar ima 1 GB ili vi??e instalirane sistemske memorije, za bolje performanse, odaberite Run from RAM iz pokreta??kog menija.
Va?? ra??unar mora biti u mogu??nosti da pokre??e sistem sa ure??aja koji sadr??i medij sa ??ivim otiskom. Na primer, ako je ??ivi otisak na CD-u ili DVD-u, ra??unar mora biti sposoban da pokre??e sistem sa CD ili DVD ure??aja.
4.??Pokretanje
Ovaj odeljak pru??a dodatan vodi?? za korisnike ??ije iskustvo sa pokretanjem ra??unara, ili ???butovanjem (booting),??? je ograni??eno na pritiskanje tastera za uklju??enje. Da biste podesili sistem da krene sa ??ivog medija, prvo oborite sistem ako on ve?? nije isklju??en. Uklju??ite ra??unar, i potra??ite na po??etnom BIOS ekranu odzivnik koji ukazuje koji taster da koristite za ili:
pokreta??ki meni, ili
alat za postavku BIOS-a
Opcija pokreta??kog menija je po??eljnija. Ako ne mo??ete da vidite takav odzivnik, konsultujte dokumentaciju proizvo??a??a za mati??nu plo??u ra??unara za ta??an taster koji treba pritisnuti. Na velikom broju sistema, taster ??e biti F12, F2, F1, ili Delete.
Najve??i broj ra??unara pokre??e sistem sa ??vrstog diska (ili jednog od diskova, ako postoji vi??e od jednog). Ako ??itate ovaj dokument sa CD-a ili DVD-a, onda postavite ra??unar da se pokre??e sa DVD ili CD ure??aja. Ako ??itate ovu datoteku sa USB ure??aja kao npr. memorijskog ??tapi??a, postavite ra??unar da se pokre??e sa USB ure??aja.
Ako na??inite promene u BIOS postavkama, zavedite teku??a pode??avanja ure??aja sa kojih se pokre??e sistem. Ovo ??e vam pomo??i da povratite originalna pode??avanja ako odaberete da se kasnije vratite u prethodno okru??enje.
BIOS na starijim ra??unarima mo??da ne??e uklju??ivati izbor koji ??elite, kao ??to je pokretanje preko mre??e. Ako ra??unar mo??e biti pokrenut samo sa diskete ili ??vrstog diska, mogu??e je da ne??ete mo??i da isprobate ovaj ??ivi otisak na va??em ra??unaru.
Mo??da bi trebalo da proverite da li je a??urirani BIOS dostupan od proizvo??a??a va??eg ra??unara. BIOS a??uriranje mo??e ponuditi dodatne izbore za pokretanje sistema, ali tra??i da bude oprezno instalirano. Pro??itajte dokumentaciju proizvo??a??a za vi??e informacija. U drugom slu??aju, pitajte nekog od prijatelja da li mo??ete poku??ati pokretanje ??ivog otiska na njihovom novijem ra??unaru.
5.??Dobiti
Slede??e dobiti se sakupljaju sa ??ivim otiskom:
Pokre??u??i ovaj ??ivi otisak, kontrola je u va??im rukama, i niste ograni??eni na postavke ekrana ili opcije koje su odabrali drugi. Odaberite koje ??ete zadatke ili programe istra??ivati sa potpunom slobodom.
Mo??ete eksperimentisati sa ovim ??ivim otiskom ne ugro??avaju??i prethodno instalirano okru??enje, dokumenta ili radnu povr??inu. Zaustavite va?? teku??i sistem, pokrenite sa ??ivim otiskom, pa ponovo pokrenite originalni operativni sistem kada budete zavr??ili. Va??e prethodno okru??enje je povra??eno bez ikakvih izmena.
Mo??ete koristiti ??ivi otisak da biste proverili da li svi va??i hardverski ure??aji mogu biti prepoznati i pravilno pode??eni.
Puno prepoznavanje hardvera
U nekim slu??ajevima ??ivi otisak ne pru??a punu hardversku podr??ku koja postoji u instaliranom Fedora sistemu. Mo??da ??ete mo??i da ru??no podesite podr??ku u ??ivom otisku, ali morate ponavljati ove korake svaki put kada koristite ??ivi otisak.
Mo??ete koristiti ??ivi otisak da biste isprobali razli??ita radna okru??enja kao ??to su GNOME, KDE, XFCE, i druga. Nijedan od izbora ne zahteva da iznova pode??avate postoje??u Linux instalaciju na svom ra??unaru.
6.??Za??koljice
??ivi otisak tako??e ima neke mane u zameni za povoljnosti:
Kada koristite ??ivi otisak, ra??unar mo??e odgovarati mnogo sporije ili zahtevati vi??e vremena da zavr??i zadatke nego u sistemu instaliranom na ??vrsti disk. CD i DVD diskovi ??alju podatke ra??unaru mnogo sporije nego ??vrsti diskovi. Manje sistemske memorije je dostupno za u??itavanje i pokretanje programa. Pokretanje ??ivog otiska iz RAM memorije ??rtvuje ve??e zauze??e memorije za br??i odziv.
Da bi se umanjio neophodan prostor, manje instaliranih programa je uklju??eno nego u punoj Fedora instalaciji. Mo??e se desiti da va??i omiljeni programi ne budu uklju??eni u ovom ??ivom otisku, iako mogu biti prisutni i raditi dosta dobro u punoj Fedora instalaciji.
U ovom trenutku, ne mo??ete trajno instalirati nove programe u ??ivi otisak. Da biste isprobali druge programe uglavnom morate instalirati Fedora sistem na ra??unar. Mo??ete tako??e biti u mogu??nosti da privremeno instalirate ili nadgradite programe, ali ako imate dovoljno sistemske memorije. Ve??ina sistema zahteva vi??e od 512 MB RAM-a da bi instalacije ili nadgradnje bile uspe??ne. Ove promene ??e biti izgubljene kada oborite ??ivi otisak.
Izmene mogu tako??e nestati ako sistemska memorija prisiljava sistem da ponovo ??ita originalan softver ili pode??avanja sa ??ivog otiska. Ovo pona??anje je karakteristi??no za ??ivi otisak i ne de??ava se kod pune Fedora instalacije.
7.??Eksperimentisanje sa ??ivim otiskom
Kada istra??ujete padaju??e menije na ili okolo radne povr??ine, potra??ite programe koje biste voleli da pokrenete. Mo??ete tako??e po??eleti da istra??ite druge mogu??nosti.
7.1.??Deljenje postoje??ih podataka
Mo??ete deliti podatke preko postoje??ih skladi??nih ure??aja, kao ??to su:
diskete
USB diskovi
disk particije
7.2.??Pravljenje rezervne kopije podataka
Mo??ete tako??e koristiti ??ivi otisak da biste napravili rezervne ili kopije podataka za arhivu, ako va?? sistem poseduje:
CD ili DVD reza??
??vrsti disk sa mnogo slobodnog prostora
Datoteke koje ina??e koristi prethodni operativni sistem kada je pokrenut nisu u upotrebi kod ??ivog otiska. Stoga mo??ete koristiti ??ivi otisak da kopirate problemati??ne datoteke da biste napravili rezervnu kopiju softvera iz prethodnog operativnog sistema.
8.??Instaliranje Fedora sistema sa ??ivog otiska
Da biste instalirali sistem iz ovog ??ivog otiska, pokrenite LiveOS kako je prethodno opisano, i odaberite program Install to Hard Disk na radnoj povr??ini. Koriste??i dobijenu Fedora instalaciju, mo??ete prilagoditi softver i pode??avanja va??im ??eljama na trajnoj bazi.
9.??Potrebne su nam povratne informacije!
Ako prona??ete ??tamparsku gre??ku u ovom priru??niku, ili ako ste smislili na??in kako ovaj priru??nik u??initi boljim, voleli bismo da nam javite! Podnesite izve??taj u Buba??daji: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ za proizvod Documentation.
Kada podnosite izve??taj o gre??ci, postarajte se da spomenete identifikator priru??nika: Fedora_Live_images
Ako imate predlog za pobolj??anje dokumentacije, poku??ajte da budete ??to je mogu??e odre??eniji kada ga opisujete. Ako ste prona??li gre??ku, prilo??ite broj odeljka i ne??to okru??uju??eg teksta kako bismo ga lako prona??li.
A.??Istorija revizija
Istorija revizija Revizija 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
Preba??eno za pravljenje u Publikanu Revizija 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
Osve??eno za Fedora 11 Revizija 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
Osve??eno za Fedora 10.93 Revizija 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
Osve??eno za Fedora 10 Revizija 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
Osve??eno za Fedora 9.92
From rlandmann at fedoraproject.org Fri Aug 7 22:05:17 2009
From: rlandmann at fedoraproject.org (=?utf-8?q?R=C3=BCdiger_Landmann?=)
Date: Fri, 7 Aug 2009 22:05:17 +0000 (UTC)
Subject: web/html/docs/readme-live-image/Common_Content/images 1.png, NONE,
1.1 1.svg, NONE, 1.1 10.png, NONE, 1.1 10.svg, NONE, 1.1 11.png,
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NONE, 1.1 18.svg, NONE, 1.1 19.png, NONE, 1.1 19.svg, NONE,
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NONE, 1.1 21.png, NONE, 1.1 21.svg, NONE, 1.1 22.png, NONE,
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1.1 background.png, NONE, 1.1 bkgrnd_greydots.png, NONE,
1.1 bullet_arrowblue.png, NONE, 1.1 documentation.png, NONE,
1.1 dot.png, NONE, 1.1 dot2.png, NONE, 1.1 h1-bg.png, NONE,
1.1 image_left.png, NONE, 1.1 image_right.png, NONE,
1.1 important.png, NONE, 1.1 important.svg, NONE, 1.1 key.png,
NONE, 1.1 logo.png, NONE, 1.1 note.png, NONE, 1.1 note.svg, NONE,
1.1 shade.png, NONE, 1.1 stock-go-back.png, NONE,
1.1 stock-go-forward.png, NONE, 1.1 stock-go-up.png, NONE,
1.1 stock-home.png, NONE, 1.1 title_logo.png, NONE,
1.1 title_logo.svg, NONE, 1.1 warning.png, NONE, 1.1 warning.svg,
NONE, 1.1 watermark-alpha1.png, NONE, 1.1 watermark-alpha2.png,
NONE, 1.1 watermark-beta1.png, NONE, 1.1 watermark-beta2.png,
NONE, 1.1 watermark-blank.png, NONE, 1.1 watermark-draft.png,
NONE, 1.1 watermark-pre-release-candidate.png, NONE,
1.1 watermark-release-candidate.png, NONE, 1.1
Message-ID: <20090807220517.E5F2711C00D7@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com>
Author: rlandmann
Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/readme-live-image/Common_Content/images
In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv17716/readme-live-image/Common_Content/images
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background.png bkgrnd_greydots.png bullet_arrowblue.png
documentation.png dot.png dot2.png h1-bg.png image_left.png
image_right.png important.png important.svg key.png logo.png
note.png note.svg shade.png stock-go-back.png
stock-go-forward.png stock-go-up.png stock-home.png
title_logo.png title_logo.svg warning.png warning.svg
watermark-alpha1.png watermark-alpha2.png watermark-beta1.png
watermark-beta2.png watermark-blank.png watermark-draft.png
watermark-pre-release-candidate.png
watermark-release-candidate.png
Log Message:
Add readme-live-image
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From rlandmann at fedoraproject.org Fri Aug 7 22:05:43 2009
From: rlandmann at fedoraproject.org (=?utf-8?q?R=C3=BCdiger_Landmann?=)
Date: Fri, 7 Aug 2009 22:05:43 +0000 (UTC)
Subject: web/html/docs index.php,1.56,1.57
Message-ID: <20090807220543.7372211C00D7@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com>
Author: rlandmann
Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs
In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv17716
Modified Files:
index.php
Log Message:
Add readme-live-image
Index: index.php
===================================================================
RCS file: /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/index.php,v
retrieving revision 1.56
retrieving revision 1.57
diff -u -r1.56 -r1.57
--- index.php 30 Jul 2009 03:32:23 -0000 1.56
+++ index.php 7 Aug 2009 22:05:13 -0000 1.57
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@
Fedora 11Fedora ???????? ????????????
???????? ?????????????????? Fedora ???????? ????????????
???????????? ????????????????
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
??????????????
???????? ?????????????????? Fedora ???????? ????????????1.??????????
???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????? ????????????? Fedora ?????????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ???????? ???????????????? ????????????????. ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????????? ????????????????, ???????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????. ???????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? Fedora ??????????????, ?????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ?? ??????????????????????. ???????????????????? ??????????????5, ?????????????????? ?? ??????????????6, ???????????????????????? ??
?? ???????? ??????????????????????.
2.???????? ???? ?????????????? ???? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ???????????????
?????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ????????????, ???????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???? ?????????????? ???????????? Fedora ??????????????. ?????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????????? ??????????????4, ???????????????????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ????????????. ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?? ?????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???? ????????.
3.???????????????????????? ??????????????
???????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ???? 256 ???? ?????? ???????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????, ???????????????????? RAM-??. ?????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????? 1 ???? ?????? ???????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????, ???? ???????? ??????????????????????, ?????????????????? Run from RAM ???? ?????????????????????? ????????????.
?????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????????????????? ???? ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????. ???? ????????????, ?????? ???? ???????? ???????????? ???? ????-?? ?????? ??????-??, ?????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????????????.
4.????????????????????
???????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ???? ???????????????????? ????????????????, ?????? ????????????????????? (booting),??? ???? ???????????????????? ???? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ????????????????. ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????, ???????? ?????????????? ???????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????????????. ???????????????? ??????????????, ?? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????????? BIOS ???????????? ???????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???? ??????:
???????????????????? ????????, ??????
???????? ???? ???????????????? BIOS-??
???????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????????. ?????? ???? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ????????????????, ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????????????????. ???? ?????????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ???????????? ???? ???????? F12, F2, F1, ?????? Delete.
?????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????? (?????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????, ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ???? ????????????). ?????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????????? ???? ????-?? ?????? ??????-??, ???????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????????????. ?????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????. ?????????????????????? ??????????????, ?????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ??????????????.
?????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ?? BIOS ????????????????????, ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????????. ?????? ???? ?????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ????????????????.
BIOS ???? ???????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????, ?????? ?????? ???? ?????????????????? ?????????? ??????????. ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????? ???????? ???? ?????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????????, ???????????? ???? ???? ???????????? ???????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????????.
?????????? ???? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????????????? BIOS ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ????????????????. BIOS ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????????? ??????????????, ?????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????. ???????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ???? ???????? ??????????????????????. ?? ???????????? ??????????????, ?????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???? ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????? ????????????????.
5.??????????????
?????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????:
?????????????????? ???????? ???????? ????????????, ???????????????? ???? ?? ?????????? ????????????, ?? ?????????? ???????????????????? ???? ???????????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ???? ???????????????? ??????????. ?????????????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ???? ???????????????? ????????????????.
???????????? ???????????????????????????????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? ???? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????????, ?????????????????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????????. ???????????????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????, ?????????????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????, ???? ???????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ????????????????. ???????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ????????????.
???????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?? ???????????????? ????????????????.
???????? ???????????????????????? ????????????????
?? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ?? ???????????????????????? Fedora ??????????????. ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????, ?????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????????? ???????? ????????????.
???????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ?????? ?????? ???? GNOME, KDE, XFCE, ?? ??????????. ?????????????? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? Linux ?????????????????????? ???? ???????? ????????????????.
6.????????????????????
???????? ???????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????????? ???? ????????????????????:
???????? ?????????????????? ???????? ????????????, ?????????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????????? ???????? ?? ?????????????? ???????????????????????? ???? ???????????? ????????. ???? ?? ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????. ???????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ????????????????. ?????????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? RAM ???????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????? ??????????.
???? ???? ???? ???????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????, ???????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????????????? ???????? ?? ?????????? Fedora ??????????????????????. ???????? ???? ???????????? ???? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????? ???????????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????????????, ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????? ?? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ?????????? Fedora ??????????????????????.
?? ???????? ????????????????, ???? ???????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?? ???????? ????????????. ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? Fedora ???????????? ???? ??????????????. ???????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ???????????????????? ???? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ????????????????, ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????. ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???? 512 ???? RAM-?? ???? ???? ?????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ???????? ??????????????. ?????? ?????????????? ???? ???????? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????? ????????????.
???????????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????. ?????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????????????????? ???? ???????? ???????????? ?? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????? ???????? Fedora ??????????????????????.
7.?????????????????????????????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????
???????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????????, ?????????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????????. ???????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????? ?????????? ????????????????????.
7.1.?????????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????
???????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????????, ?????? ?????? ????:
??????????????
?????? ??????????????
???????? ??????????????????
7.2.?????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ????????????????
???????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???? ????????????, ?????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????????:
???? ?????? ?????? ??????????
???????????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????
???????????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ???? ???????????????? ???????? ?? ???????????????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????. ?????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????????.
8.???????????????????????? Fedora ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????
???? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ????????????, ?????????????????? LiveOS ???????? ???? ?????????????????? ??????????????, ?? ?????????????????? ?????????????? Install to Hard Disk ???? ???????????? ????????????????. ?????????????????? ???????????????? Fedora ??????????????????????, ???????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????? ?? ???????????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????.
9.?????????????????? ???? ?????? ???????????????? ??????????????????????!
?????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????? ????????????????????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????, ???????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ????????????! ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?? ??????????????????: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ ???? ???????????????? Documentation.
???????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?? ????????????, ???????????????????? ???? ???? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ????????????????????: Fedora_Live_images
?????? ?????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????????, ?????????????????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????????? ???????? ???? ??????????????????. ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ????????????, ?????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ?? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????????????????.
A.?????????????????? ????????????????
???????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? 11.1.0 Mon Jul 21 2009
?????????????????? ???? ???????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ???????????????? 11.0.0 Fri May 08 2009
???????????????? ???? Fedora 11 ???????????????? 10.93.0 Mon Apr 20 2009
???????????????? ???? Fedora 10.93 ???????????????? 10.0.0 Fri Nov 07 2008
???????????????? ???? Fedora 10 ???????????????? 9.92 Sat 19 July 2008
???????????????? ???? Fedora 9.92
Live CD How-to
-Live OS README/Introduction
+Live OS README/Introduction
Making (Burning) Fedora Discs
From rlandmann at fedoraproject.org Fri Aug 7 22:07:54 2009
From: rlandmann at fedoraproject.org (=?utf-8?q?R=C3=BCdiger_Landmann?=)
Date: Fri, 7 Aug 2009 22:07:54 +0000 (UTC)
Subject: da-DK/Fedora_Live_images.po de-DE/Fedora_Live_images.po
es-ES/Fedora_Live_images.po po/da.po po/de.po po/es.po
Message-ID: <20090807220754.565B7120203@lists.fedorahosted.org>
da-DK/Fedora_Live_images.po | 6 +++---
de-DE/Fedora_Live_images.po | 2 +-
es-ES/Fedora_Live_images.po | 4 ++--
po/da.po | 16 ++++++++--------
po/de.po | 9 ++++++++-
po/es.po | 4 ++--
6 files changed, 24 insertions(+), 17 deletions(-)
New commits:
commit 351f5068b21942c31fd4e20f8854a453ee3dbdd4
Author: Ruediger Landmann
Medewerkers
- + Fabian Affolter (vertaler ??? Duits, 2007???2009) +
- + Amanpreet Singh Alam (vertaler ??? Punjabi, 2007) +
- + Teta Bilianou (vertaler ??? Grieks, 2007) +
- + Dapid Candra (vertaler ??? Indonesisch, 2008) +
- + Thomas Canniot (vetaler ??? Frans, 2006) +
- + Glaucia Cintra (vertaler ??? Braziliaans Portuguees, 2007???2008) +
- + Bart Couvreur (vertaler ??? Nederlands, 2006???2007) +
- + Piotr Dr??g (vertaler ??? Pools, 2006; editor, 2008) +
- + Damien Durand (vertaler ??? Frans, 2006) +
- + Paul W. Frields (editor, 2006???2008) +
- + Dmitris Glezos (vertalr ??? Grieks, 2006???2007; editor, 2008) +
- + Rafael Gomes (vertaler ??? Braziliaans Portuguees, 2008) +
- + Rui Gouveia (vertaler ??? Portuguees, 2009) +
- + Han Guokai vertaler ??? Vereenvoudigd Chinees, 2008) +
- + Ryuichi Hyugabaru (vertaler ??? Japans, 2007???2008) +
- + Valeriy Kruchko (vertaler ??? Russisch, 2009) +
- + R??diger Landmann (editor, 2009) +
- + Magnus Larsson (vertaler ??? Zweeds, 2006) +
- + Gladys Guerrero Lozano (vertaler ??? Spaans, 2009) +
- + Andrew Martynov (vertaler ??? Russisch, 2006???2007) +
- + Noriko Mizumoto (vertaler ??? Japans, 2006; editor, 2007???2009) +
- + Mohd Izhar Firdaus Ismail (vertaler ??? Maleis, 2008) +
- + Manuel Ospina (writer, 2006???2007; vertaler ??? Spaans, 2006???2007) +
- + Nikola Pajtic (vertaler ??? Servisch, 2008) +
- + Robert Pereira (vertaler ??? Braziliaans Portuguees, 2008) +
- + Silvio Pierro (vertaler ??? Italiaans, 2008) +
- + Alain Portal (vertaler ??? Frans, 2007) +
- + Mario Santagiuliana (vertaler ??? Italiaans, 2009) +
- + Jaswinder Singh Phulewala (vertaler ??? Punjabi, 2007) +
- + Sulyok P??ter (vertaler ??? Hongaars, 2009) +
- + Francesco Tombolini (vertaler ??? Italiaans, 2006???2008) +
- + Vmlinz Qi (vertaler ??? Vereenvoudigd Chinees, 2007) +
- + Thomas Wehrle (vertaler ??? Duits, 2008) +
- + Diego B??rigo Zacar??o (vertaler ??? Braziliaans Portuguees, 2007???2008; editor, 2007) +
- Terug
- + Om een Fedora account aan te maken maken ga je eerst naar http://admin.fedoraproject.org/accounts en je selecteert New Account. +
- + Vul de velden Username, Full Name en Email in, en klik op Sign up!. Je wachtwoord zal per email naar je toegestuurd worden. +
- + Ga terug naar http://admin.fedoraproject.org/accounts en meld je aan met je wachtwoord. De welkom pagina zal worden getoond, en deze herinnert je eraan dat de CLA nog niet voltooid is en dat de SSH sleutel nog niet ingediend is. +
- + Om je publieke SSH sleutel en je GPG sleutel ID in te dienen, klik je op My Account of je gaat naar http://admin.fedoraproject.org/accounts/user/edit. +
- + In de Edit Account (user_name) pagina, vul je jouw GPG sleutel ID in in het GPG Key ID: veld. Voor de publieke SSH sleutel, klik je de Browse... knop die naast het Public SSH Key: veld te vinden is en geef je jouw publieke SSH sleutel op. +
- + De Telephone Number en Postal Address velden moeten ingevuld worden voor het ondertekenen van de CLA. Deze informatie is NIET beschikbaar voor anderen, met uitzondering van leden van de admin groep. Refereer naar de Fedora Privacy Policy op http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/PrivacyPolicy. +
- + Andere velden zullen getoond worden door andere leden door de view pagina van de gebruiker te bezoeken. +
- + Klik nu op Save! onderaan op de pagina om jouw informatie te bewaren. +
- + Maak dan een persoonlijke pagina aan op http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User:Username. Dit is erg handig voor Fedora medewerkers om elkaar te leren kennen en kontakt met elkaar op te kunnen nemen. +
- + Stuur een korte introduktie van jezelf naar de
fedora-trans-listmailing lijst en naar de lijst van je locale team, gebruik makend van de aanwijzingen in http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/L10N/SelfIntroduction. Denk eraan om je FAS gebruikersnaam en je taal toe te voegen. Met deze informatie, kan de sponsor jou identificeren voor goedkeuring voor het toetreden tot de 'cvsl10n' groep. + - + In de user-view pagina klik je op Apply For a New Group die zich in de linkse zijbalk bevindt. Als je deze stap later wilt doen kun je jouw user-view pagina bereiken op http://admin.fedoraproject.org/accounts/user/view/user_name. +
- + Klik op C van het alfabet, en het toont de lijst van de groepen die met een 'c' beginnen. +
- + Zoek de groep naam cvsl10n in de lijst en klik op Apply. +
- + Alle beheerders krijgen bericht van jouw aanmelding. Introduceer jezelf door Paragraaf??2.6, ???Stel je voor??? te volgen. Daarna zal jouw taal beheerder aanbieden om jou te sponsoren. Dit kan een uur tot een paar dagen duren. Zodra je gesponsord bent krijg je een email met de lidmaatschap bevestiging. +
- + Om een sleutel aan te maken type je op een commando lijn: +
gpg --gen-key++ Een reeks prompts leidt je door het proces. De standaard waarden zullen in bijna alle gevallen voldoen. Denk eraan om een goed wachtwoord te kiezen. +Kies een Goed Wachtwoord
+ Een goed wachtwoord: +- + bestaat uit hoofd en kleine letters, cijfers, leestekens en andere karakters +
- + bevat geen woorden of namen, met of zonder plaatsvervanging +
- + is niet gelijk aan enig ander wachtwoord gebruikt voor andere systemen +
- + In de resulterende tekst, kun je je sleutel ID vinden in de boodschap die lijkt op "pub 1024D/1B2AFA1C". Jouw sleutel ID is het "woord" van 8 karakters achter de slash (
/). In het vorige voorbeeld is de GPG sleutel ID1B2AFA1C. Noteer je sleutel ID. + - + Exporteer je publieke sleutel naar een publieke server, zodat anderen het kunnen vinden, met het volgende kommando, waarbij je jouw sleutel ID invult: +
gpg --keyserver subkeys.pgp.net --send-keys+GPGKEYID - + Deze GPG sleutel ID zal gebruikt worden bij het aanmaken van jouw Fedora account zoals beschreven in Paragraaf??2.4, ???Een Account Aanvragen???. +
- + Voer het volgende commando uit: +
ssh-keygen -t rsa++ Accepteer de standaard locatie (~/.ssh/id_rsa) en geef een wachtwoord op. +Onthoud je wachtwoord!
+ Je moet je wachtwoord hebben voor opsturen van vertalingen. Het kan niet opgezocht worden als je het vergeten bent. + - + Verander de permissies van je sleutel en van de
.sshmap: +chmod 700 ~/.sshchmod 600 ~/.ssh/id_rsachmod 644 ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub+ - + Deze publieke sleutel (~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub) zal gebruikt worden bij het aanmaken van jouw Fedora account zoals beschreven in Paragraaf??2.4, ???Een Account Aanvragen???. +
- + Bezoek http://admin.fedoraproject.org/accounts en log hier in met je gebruikersnaam en wachtwoord verkregen in de vorige stap. +
- + Op de Welcome pagina klik je op complete the CLA of je gaat naarhttp://admin.fedoraproject.org/accounts/user/edit. +
- + Als het telefoon nummer en het post adres nog niet opgegeven is, zal de Edit Account (gebruikers_naam) pagina verschijnen. Anders wordt de Fedora Contributor License Agreement pagina getoond. Lees de overeenkomst aandachtig door en klik op I agree als je er mee eens bent. +
- + De user-view pagina verschijnt en toont het CLA: veld als CLA Done. +
- + Bezoek http://listman.redhat.com/mailman/listinfo/fedora-trans-list en abonneer je op de belangrijkste translation mailing lijst. +
- + Wacht op de bevestigings email die een link bevat om je abonnement te bevestigen. Klik op de link om je abonnement te bevestigen. +
- + Check http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/L10N/Teams om te kijken of er een speciale mailing lijst is voor jouw taal. Als dat zo is, abonneer je je ook op deze lijst. +
- + Docs :: Common entities +
- + Docs :: Release Notes +
- + Docs :: About Fedora +
- + Docs :: Readme +
- + Docs :: Readme Burning ISOs +
- + Docs :: Readme Live Image +
- + Bezoek Transifex op http://translate.fedoraproject.org, en vertaal het project Docs :: Common entities, gebruik makend van dezelfde procedure als getoond in Paragraaf??3, ???Software vertalen???. +
- + Bezoek het fedora-doc-utils hosted project op https://fedorahosted.org/fedora-doc-utils. Selecteer de Login link en gebruik je Fedora Account Systeem login en wachtwoord om in te loggen. +
- + Selecteer de New ticket link om een nieuwe ticket aan te maken. Gebruik de volgende informatie voor het invullen van de ticket: +
- + Samenvatting: Nieuwe taal ondersteunings verzoek:
pt_BR+ - + Priority: minor +
- + Component: language support +
+ Je kunt de details leeg laten of informatie invullen zoals gewenst. +Voeg Bestanden toe Indien Nodig
+ Als je een probleem ondervindt met het opsturen van PO bestanden met behulp van bovenstaande aanwijzingen, kun je deze ook toevoegen aan de Trac ticket. + - + Haal het bestand
potop en kopieer deze naar je eigen taal'spobestand. +cp ~/myproject/comps/comps.HEAD.pot ja.polokalize ja.pomsgfmt -cvo /dev/null ja.po+ - + Als je klaar bent met het vertalen, klik je op de Add a new translation knop op de project pagina. +
- + Type je nieuwe bestandsnaam in het veld aangegeven met or enter it here:, en vervang de bestandsnaam met jouw locale: +
po/ja.po+ - + Ga terug naar je taal pagina, als voorbeeld http://translate.fedoraproject.org/languages/ja, en selekteer een doel vrijgave. De interface zal je naar een pagina voor die vrijgave brengen, zoals http://translate.fedoraproject.org/languages/ja/collection/fedora/fedora-12/. +
Inloggen
+ Selecteer boven in de pagina Sign in om de Sign in pagina te bezoeken. Login met je Fedora Account System gebruikersnaam en wachtwoord. +Submit
+ Gebruik de potlood icoon aangegeven met Send a translation for this language naast ieder project, en klik op de blader knop om je vertaalde bestand te vinden. ++ Selecteer Send om je vertaalde bestand te committen. ++ De interface laat de boodschap File submitted successfully zien. Als je een foutmelding, of een andere succes boodschap ontvangt, stuur die dan naar de Fedora Localization Project mail lijst zodat ernaar gekeken kan worden. +- + Bezoek je taal pagina, als voorbeeld http://translate.fedoraproject.org/languages/ja, en selekteer een doel vrijgave. De interface zal je naar een pagina voor die vrijgave brengen, zoals http://translate.fedoraproject.org/languages/ja/collection/fedora/fedora-12/. +
- + Ga naar beneden op de pagina om de tabel van alle beschikbare projecten voor die vrijgave te vinden. Gebruik de download icoon aangeven met Download ja.po of vergelijkbaar naast ieder project om het
pobestand te downloaden in de map die je in de vorige paragraaf aangemaakt hebt. + - + Omdat de bestand naam om te committen de naam conventie
lang.povolgt, verander de naam van het binnengehaalde bestand. Het volgende voorbeeld gebruikt de Japanse locale voor hetpobestand: +ls ~/myproject/comps/+comps.HEAD.ja.po+mv ~/myproject/comps/comps.HEAD.ja.po ja.po+ls ~/myproject/comps/+ja.po+ - + Nu is het bestand gereed om te vertalen. Vertaal het
pobestand voor jouw taal met behulp van eenpoeditor zoals Lokalize of gtranslator. + - + Controleer de integriteit van het nieuwe bestand voordat je het commit. +
msgfmt -cvo /dev/null ja.po+ - + Ga naar de map van het pakket dat je wilt testen. Bijvoorbeeld, +
cd ~/myproject/+system-config-printer/ - + Converteer het
.pobestand naar een.mobestand doormsgfmtte gebruiken met-o: +msgfmt -o system-config-printer.mo+ja.po - + Als root gebruiker overschrijf je het bestaande
.mobestand in/usr/share/locale/. +lang/LC_MESSAGES/+ Maak eerst een back up van het bestaande bestand: +su -+cp /usr/share/locale/+ja/LC_MESSAGES/system-config-printer.mosystem-config-printer.mo-backup+ Verplaats nu het veranderde bestand om te testen. +mv+system-config-printer.mo /usr/share/locale/ja/LC_MESSAGES/+ Eindig de root sessie. +exit+ - + Test het pakket met de vertaalde tekst als onderdeel van de applicatie: +
LANG=+ja_JP.UTF-8system-config-printer - Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service postfix startas the root user to startpostfix:service postfix start Starting postfix: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep postfixto view thepostfixprocesses:ps -eZ | grep postfix system_u:system_r:postfix_master_t:s0 1651 ? 00:00:00 master system_u:system_r:postfix_pickup_t:s0 1662 ? 00:00:00 pickup system_u:system_r:postfix_qmgr_t:s0 1663 ? 00:00:00 qmgr
For example, the SELinux context associated with the Postfixmasterprocess isunconfined_u:system_r:postfix_master_t:s0. The second last part of the context,postfix_master_t, is the type for this process. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, themasterprocess is running in thepostfix_master_tdomain. postfix_etc_t- This type is used for configuration files for Postfix in
/etc/postfix. postfix_data_t- This type is used for Postfix data files in
/var/lib/postfix. allow_postfix_local_write_mail_spool- Having this Boolean enables Postfix to write to the local mail spool on the system. Postfix requires this Boolean to be enabled for normal operation when local spools are used.
- Run the
semanagecommand to show the port that SELinux allowsspamdto listen on by default:# semanage port -l | grep spamd spamd_port_t tcp 783
This output shows that TCP/783 is defined inspamd_port_tas the port for SpamAssassin to operate on. - Edit the
/etc/sysconfig/spamassassinconfiguration file and modify it so that it will start SpamAssassin on the example port TCP/10000:# Options to spamd SPAMDOPTIONS="-d -p 10000 -c m5 -H"
This line now specifies that SpamAssassin will operate on port 10000. The rest of this example will show how to modify SELinux policy to allow this socket to be opened. - Start SpamAssassin and an error message similar to the following will appear:
/etc/init.d/spamassassin start Starting spamd: [2203] warn: server socket setup failed, retry 1: spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied [2203] warn: server socket setup failed, retry 2: spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied [2203] error: spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied [FAILED]This output means that SELinux has blocked access to this port. - A denial similar to the following will be logged by SELinux:
SELinux is preventing the spamd (spamd_t) from binding to port 10000.
- As the root user, run the
semanagecommand to modify SELinux policy in order to allow SpamAssassin to operate on the example port (TCP/10000):semanage port -a -t spamd_port_t -p tcp 10000
- Confirm that SpamAssassin will now start and is operating on TCP port 10000:
# /etc/init.d/spamassassin start Starting spamd: [ OK ] # netstat -lnp | grep 10000 tcp 0 0 127.0.0.1:10000 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN 2224/spamd.pid
- At this point,
spamdis properly operating on TCP port 10000 as it has been allowed access to that port by SELinux policy. - SELinux by Example
- Mayer, MacMillan, and CaplanPrentice Hall, 2007
- SELinux: NSA's Open Source Security Enhanced Linux
- Bill McCartyO'Reilly Media Inc., 2004
- Tutorials and talks from Russell Coker
- Dan Walsh's Journal
- Red Hat Knowledgebase
- NSA SELinux main website
- NSA SELinux FAQ
- NSA SELinux mailing list
- Fedora SELinux mailing list
- Fedora SELinux User Guide
- SELinux Project Wiki
- SELinux community page
- IRC
- irc.freenode.net, #selinux and #fedora-selinux
- Run
rpm -q vsftpdto see if the vsftpd package is installed. If it is not, runyum install vsftpdas the root user to install it. - In Fedora,
vsftpdonly allows anonymous users to log in by default. To allow authenticated users to log in, edit/etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.confas the root user. Uncomment thelocal_enable=YESoption:# Uncomment this to allow local users to log in. local_enable=YES
- Run
service vsftpd startas the root user to startvsftpd. If the service was running before editingvsftpd.conf, runservice vsftpd restartas the root user to apply the configuration changes:service vsftpd start Starting vsftpd for vsftpd: [ OK ]
- Run
ftp localhostas the user you are currently logged in with. When prompted for your name, make sure your username is displayed. If the correct username is displayed, press Enter, otherwise, enter the correct username:$ ftp localhost Connected to localhost (127.0.0.1). 220 (vsFTPd 2.1.0) Name (localhost:
username): 331 Please specify the password. Password:Enter your password230 Login successful. Remote system type is UNIX. Using binary mode to transfer files. ftp> - Run the
lscommand from theftpprompt. With theftp_home_dirBoolean off, SELinux preventsvsftpdaccess to home directories, resulting in this command failing to return a directory listing:ftp> ls 227 Entering Passive Mode (127,0,0,1,225,210). 150 Here comes the directory listing. 226 Transfer done (but failed to open directory).
An SELinux denial similar to the following is logged to/var/log/messages:setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing the ftp daemon from reading users home directories (
username). For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l c366e889-2553-4c16-b73f-92f36a1730ce - Enable the
ftp_home_dirBoolean by running the following command as the root user:# setsebool -P ftp_home_dir=1
Note
Do not use the -P option if you do not want changes to persist across reboots.Run thelscommand again from theftpprompt. Now that SELinux is allowing home directory browsing via theftp_home_dirBoolean, the directory is displayed:ftp> ls 227 Entering Passive Mode (127,0,0,1,56,215). 150 Here comes the directory listing. -rw-rw-r-- 1 501 501 0 Mar 30 09:22 file1 -rw-rw-r-- 1 501 501 0 Mar 30 09:22 file2 226 Directory Send OK. ftp>
- Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service mysqld startas the root user to startmysqld:# service mysqld start Initializing MySQL database: Installing MySQL system tables... [ OK ] Starting MySQL: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep mysqldto view themysqldprocesses:$ ps -eZ | grep mysqld unconfined_u:system_r:mysqld_safe_t:s0 6035 pts/1 00:00:00 mysqld_safe unconfined_u:system_r:mysqld_t:s0 6123 pts/1 00:00:00 mysqld
The SELinux context associated with themysqldprocesses isunconfined_u:system_r:mysqld_t:s0. The second last part of the context,mysqld_t, is the type. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, themysqldprocesses are running in themysqld_tdomain. - Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service postfix startas the root user to startpostfix:service postfix start Starting postfix: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep postfixto view thepostfixprocesses:ps -eZ | grep postfix system_u:system_r:postfix_master_t:s0 1651 ? 00:00:00 master system_u:system_r:postfix_pickup_t:s0 1662 ? 00:00:00 pickup system_u:system_r:postfix_qmgr_t:s0 1663 ? 00:00:00 qmgr
For example, the SELinux context associated with the Postfixmasterprocess isunconfined_u:system_r:postfix_master_t:s0. The second last part of the context,postfix_master_t, is the type for this process. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, themasterprocess is running in thepostfix_master_tdomain. - Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service postgresql startas the root user to startpostgresql:service postgresql start Starting postgresql service: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep postgresto view thepostgresqlprocesses:ps -eZ | grep postgres unconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0 395 ? 00:00:00 postmaster unconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0 397 ? 00:00:00 postmaster unconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0 399 ? 00:00:00 postmaster unconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0 400 ? 00:00:00 postmaster unconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0 401 ? 00:00:00 postmaster unconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0 402 ? 00:00:00 postmaster
The SELinux context associated with thepostgresqlprocesses isunconfined_u:system_r:postgresql_t:s0. The second last part of the context,postgresql_t, is the type. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, thepostgresqlprocesses are running in thepostgresql_tdomain. - SELinux by Example
- Mayer, MacMillan, and CaplanPrentice Hall, 2007
- SELinux: NSA's Open Source Security Enhanced Linux
- Bill McCartyO'Reilly Media Inc., 2004
- Tutorials and talks from Russell Coker
- Dan Walsh's Journal
- Red Hat Knowledgebase
- NSA SELinux main website
- NSA SELinux FAQ
- NSA SELinux mailing list
- Fedora SELinux mailing list
- Fedora SELinux User Guide
- SELinux Project Wiki
- SELinux community page
- IRC
- irc.freenode.net, #selinux and #fedora-selinux
- Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service smbd startas the root user to startsmbd:service smb start Starting SMB services: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep smbto view thesmbdprocesses:$ ps -eZ | grep smb unconfined_u:system_r:smbd_t:s0
16420? 00:00:00 smbd unconfined_u:system_r:smbd_t:s016422? 00:00:00 smbdThe SELinux context associated with thesmbdprocesses isunconfined_u:system_r:smbd_t:s0. The second last part of the context,smbd_t, is the type. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, thesmbdprocesses are running in the smbd_t domain. - Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service squid startas the root user to startsquid:# service squid start Starting squid: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep squidto view thesquidprocesses:$ ps -eZ | grep squid unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2522 ? 00:00:00 squid unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2524 ? 00:00:00 squid unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2526 ? 00:00:00 ncsa_auth unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2527 ? 00:00:00 ncsa_auth unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2528 ? 00:00:00 ncsa_auth unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2529 ? 00:00:00 ncsa_auth unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2530 ? 00:00:00 ncsa_auth unconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0 2531 ? 00:00:00 unlinkd
The SELinux context associated with thesquidprocesses isunconfined_u:system_r:squid_t:s0. The second last part of the context,squid_t, is the type. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, thesquidprocesses are running in thesquid_tdomain. - Run
service squid statusto confirmsquidis not running:# service squid status squid is stopped
If the output differs, runservice squid stopto stop the process:# service squid stop Stopping squid: [ OK ]
- Run
semanage port -l | grep -w squid_port_tto view the ports SELinux allowssquidto listen on:semanage port -l | grep -w -i squid_port_t squid_port_t tcp 3128, 3401, 4827 squid_port_t udp 3401, 4827
- Edit
/etc/squid/squid.confas the root user. Configure thehttp_portoption so it lists a port that is not configured in SELinux policy configuration forsquid. In this example,squidis configured to listen on port 10000:# Squid normally listens to port 3128 http_port 10000
- Run
service squid startto startsquid:# service squid start Starting squid: .................... [FAILED]
An SELinux denial similar to the following is logged to/var/log/messages:localhost setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing the squid (squid_t) from binding to port 1000. For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l 97136444-4497-4fff-a7a7-c4d8442db982
- For SELinux to allow
squidto listen on port 10000, as used in this example, the following command is required:# semanage port -a -t squid_port_t -p tcp 10000
- Run
service squid startagain to startsquidand have it listen on the new port:# service squid start Starting squid: [ OK ]
- Now that SELinux has been configured to allow
squidto listen on a non-standard port (TCP 10000 in this example),squidstarts successfully on this port. - Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run
service httpd startas the root user to starthttpd:# service httpd start Starting httpd: [ OK ]
- Run
ps -eZ | grep httpdto view thehttpdprocesses:$ ps -eZ | grep httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s0
2850? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02852? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02853? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02854? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02855? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02856? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02857? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02858? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s02859? 00:00:00 httpdThe SELinux context associated with thehttpdprocesses isunconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s0. The second last part of the context,httpd_t, is the type. A type defines a domain for processes and a type for files. In this case, thehttpdprocesses are running in thehttpd_tdomain. - Run
service httpd statusto confirmhttpdis not running:# service httpd status httpd is stopped
If the output differs, runservice httpd stopto stop the process:# service httpd stop Stopping httpd: [ OK ]
- Run
semanage port -l | grep -w http_port_tto view the ports SELinux allowshttpdto listen on:# semanage port -l | grep -w http_port_t http_port_t tcp 80, 443, 488, 8008, 8009, 8443
- Edit
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.confas the root user. Configure theListenoption so it lists a port that is not configured in SELinux policy configuration forhttpd. In this example,httpdis configured to listen on port 12345:# Change this to Listen on specific IP addresses as shown below to # prevent Apache from glomming onto all bound IP addresses (0.0.0.0) # #Listen 12.34.56.78:80 Listen 127.0.0.1:12345
- Run
service httpd startto starthttpd:# service httpd start Starting httpd: (13)Permission denied: make_sock: could not bind to address 127.0.0.1:12345 no listening sockets available, shutting down Unable to open logs [FAILED]
An SELinux denial similar to the following is logged to/var/log/messages:setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing the httpd (httpd_t) from binding to port 12345. For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l f18bca99-db64-4c16-9719-1db89f0d8c77
- For SELinux to allow
httpdto listen on port 12345, as used in this example, the following command is required:# semanage port -a -t http_port_t -p tcp 12345
- Run
service httpd startagain to starthttpdand have it listen on the new port:# service httpd start Starting httpd: [ OK ]
- Now that SELinux has been configured to allow
httpdto listen on a non-standard port (TCP 12345 in this example),httpdstarts successfully on this port. - To prove that
httpdis listening and communicating on TCP port 12345, open a telnet connection to the specified port and issue a HTTP GET command, as follows:# telnet localhost 12345 Trying 127.0.0.1... Connected to localhost. Escape character is '^]'. GET / HTTP/1.0 HTTP/1.1 200 OK Date: Tue, 31 Mar 2009 13:12:10 GMT Server: Apache/2.2.11 (Fedora) Accept-Ranges: bytes Content-Length: 3918 Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 [...continues...]
- NextPreface< /li>
named_write_master_zones- When disabled, this Boolean prevents
namedfrom writing to zone files or directories labeled with thenamed_zone_ttype.nameddoes not usually need to write to zone files; but in the case that it needs to, or if a secondary server needs to write to zone files, enable this Boolean to allow this action. named_zone_t- Used for master zone files. Other services can not modify files of this type.
namedcan only modify files of this type if thenamed_write_master_zonesBoolean is turned on. named_cache_t- By default,
namedcan write to files labeled with this type, without additional Booleans being set. Files copied or created in the/var/named/slaves,/var/named/dynamicand/var/named/datadirectories are automatically labeled with thenamed_cache_ttype. allow_cvs_read_shadow- This Boolean allows the
cvsdaemon to access the/etc/shadowfile for user authentication. - As the root user, install the cvs and xinetd packages. Run
rpm -q cvsto see if the cvs package is installed. If it is not installed, runyum install cvsas the root user to install it. Runrpm -q xinetdto see if the xinetd package is installed. If it is not installed, runyum install xinetdas the root user to install it. - Create a group named
CVS. This can be done via thegroupadd CVScommand as the root user, or by using the system-config-users tool. - Create a user with a username of
cvsuserand make this user a member of the CVS group. This can be done using the system-config-users tool. - Edit the
/etc/servicesfile and make sure that the CVS server has uncommented entries looking similar to the following:cvspserver 2401/tcp # CVS client/server operations cvspserver 2401/udp # CVS client/server operations
- Create the CVS repository in the root area of the file system. When using SELinux, it is best to have the repository in the root file system so that recursive labels can be given to it without affecting any other subdirectories. For example, as the root user, create a
/cvsdirectory to house the repository:[root at cvs-srv]# mkdir /cvs
- Give full permissions to the
/cvsdirectory to all users:[root at cvs-srv]# chmod -R 777 /cvs
Warning
This is an example only and these permissions should not be used in a production system. - Edit the
/etc/xinetd.d/cvsfile and make sure that the CVS section is uncommented and configured to use the/cvsdirectory. The file should look similar to:service cvspserver { disable = no port = 2401 socket_type = stream protocol = tcp wait = no user = root passenv = PATH server = /usr/bin/cvs env = HOME=/cvs server_args = -f --allow-root=/cvs pserver # bind = 127.0.0.1 - Start the
xinetddaemon by runningservice xinetd startas the root user. - Add a rule which allows inbound connections using TCP on port 2401 by using the system-config-firewall tool.
- As the
cvsuseruser, run the following command:[cvsuser at cvs-client]$ cvs -d /cvs init
- At this point, CVS has been configured but SELinux will still deny logins and file access. To demonstrate this, set the $CVSROOT variable on
cvs-clientand try to log in remotely. The following step should be performed oncvs-client:[cvsuser at cvs-client]$ export CVSROOT=:pserver:cvsuser at 192.168.1.1:/cvs [cvsuser at cvs-client]$ [cvsuser at cvs-client]$ cvs login Logging in to :pserver:cvsuser at 192.168.1.1:2401/cvs CVS password: ******** cvs [login aborted]: unrecognized auth response from 192.168.100.1: cvs pserver: cannot open /cvs/CVSROOT/config: Permission denied
SELinux has blocked access. In order to get SELinux to allow this access, the following step should be performed oncvs-srv: - Change the context of the
/cvsdirectory as the root user in order to recursively label any existing and new data in the/cvsdirectory, giving it thecvs_data_ttype:[root at cvs-srv]# semanage fcontext -a -t cvs_data_t '/cvs(/.*)?' [root at cvs-srv]# restorecon -R -v /cvs
- The client,
cvs-clientshould now be able to log in and access all CVS resources in this repository:[cvsuser at cvs-client]$ export CVSROOT=:pserver:cvsuser at 192.168.1.1:/cvs [cvsuser at cvs-client]$ [cvsuser at cvs-client]$ cvs login Logging in to :pserver:cvsuser at 192.168.1.1:2401/cvs CVS password: ******** [cvsuser at cvs-client]$
cvs_data_t- This type is used for data in a CVS repository. CVS can only gain full access to data if it has this type.
cvs_exec_t- This type is used for the
/usr/bin/cvsbinary. - Edit
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.confas the root user so theListenoption lists a port that is not configured in SELinux policy forhttpd. The following example configureshttpdto listen on the 10.0.0.1 IP address, and on port 12345:# Change this to Listen on specific IP addresses as shown below to # prevent Apache from glomming onto all bound IP addresses (0.0.0.0) # #Listen 12.34.56.78:80 Listen 10.0.0.1:12345
- Run
semanage port -a -t http_port_t -p tcp 12345as the root user to add the port to SELinux policy configuration. - Run
semanage port -l | grep -w http_port_tas the root user to confirm the port is added:# semanage port -l | grep -w http_port_t http_port_t tcp 12345, 80, 443, 488, 8008, 8009, 8443
- As the root user, create a
/var/www/html/file1.htmlfile. Copy and paste the following content into/var/www/html/file1.html:<html> <h2>File being shared through the Apache HTTP Server and Samba.</h2> </html>
- Run
ls -Z /var/www/html/file1.htmlto view the SELinux context offile1.html:$ ls -Z /var/www/html/file1.html -rw-r--r--. root root unconfined_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /var/www/html/file1.html
file1.index.htmlis labeled with thehttpd_sys_content_t. By default, the Apache HTTP Server can access this type, but Samba can not. - Run
service httpd startas the root user to start the Apache HTTP Server:service httpd start Starting httpd: [ OK ]
- Change into a directory your user has write access to, and run the
wget http://localhost/file1.htmlcommand. Unless there are changes to the default configuration, this command succeeds:$ wget http://localhost/file1.html --2009-03-02 16:32:01-- http://localhost/file1.html Resolving localhost... 127.0.0.1 Connecting to localhost|127.0.0.1|:80... connected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response... 200 OK Length: 84 [text/html] Saving to: `file1.html.1' 100%[=======================>] 84 --.-K/s in 0s 2009-03-02 16:32:01 (563 KB/s) - `file1.html.1' saved [84/84]
- Edit
/etc/samba/smb.confas the root user. Add the following to the bottom of this file to share the/var/www/html/directory through Samba:[website] comment = Sharing a website path = /var/www/html/ public = no writeable = no
- The
/var/www/html/directory is labeled with thehttpd_sys_content_ttype. By default, Samba can not access files and directories labeled with thehttpd_sys_content_ttype, even if Linux permissions allow it. To allow Samba access, run the following command as the root user to turn thesamba_export_all_roBoolean on:setsebool -P samba_export_all_ro on
Do not use the-Poption if you do not want the change to persist across reboots. Note: turning thesamba_export_all_roBoolean on allows Samba to access any type. - Run
service smb startas the root user to startsmbd:service smb start Starting SMB services: [ OK ]
- Run
mkdir /sharesas the root user to create a new top-level directory to share files between multiple services. - Files and directories that do not match a pattern in file-context configuration may be labeled with the
default_ttype. This type is inaccessible to confined services:$ ls -dZ /shares drwxr-xr-x root root unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0 /shares
- As the root user, create a
/shares/index.htmlfile. Copy and paste the following content into/shares/index.html:<html> <body> <p>Hello</p> </body> </html>
- Labeling
/shares/with thepublic_content_ttype allows read-only access by the Apache HTTP Server, FTP, rsync, and Samba. Run the following command as the root user to add the label change to file-context configuration:semanage fcontext -a -t public_content_t "/shares(/.*)?"
- Run
restorecon -R -v /shares/as the root user to apply the label changes:# restorecon -R -v /shares/ restorecon reset /shares context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0 restorecon reset /shares/index.html context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0
- Run
rpm -q samba samba-common samba-clientto confirm the samba, samba-common, and samba-client packages are installed (version numbers may differ):$ rpm -q samba samba-common samba-client samba-3.3.0-0.25.fc11.i386 samba-common-3.3.0-0.25.fc11.i386 samba-client-3.3.0-0.25.fc11.i386
If any of these packages are not installed, install them by runningyum installas the root user.package-name - Edit
/etc/samba/smb.confas the root user. Add the following entry to the bottom of this file to share the/shares/directory through Samba:[shares] comment = Documents for Apache HTTP Server, FTP, rsync, and Samba path = /shares public = yes writeable = no
- A Samba account is required to mount a Samba file system. Run
smbpasswd -aas the root user to create a Samba account, whereusernameusernameis an existing Linux user. For example,smbpasswd -a testusercreates a Samba account for the Linux testuser user:# smbpasswd -a testuser New SMB password:
Enter a passwordRetype new SMB password:Enter the same password againAdded user testuser.Runningsmbpasswd -a, whereusernameusernameis the username of a Linux account that does not exist on the system, causes aCannot locate Unix account for 'error.username'! - Run
service smb startas the root user to start the Samba service:service smb start Starting SMB services: [ OK ]
- Run
smbclient -Uto list the available shares, whereusername-L localhostusernameis the Samba account added in step 3. When prompted for a password, enter the password assigned to the Samba account in step 3 (version numbers may differ):$ smbclient -U
username-L localhost Enterusername's password: Domain=[HOSTNAME] OS=[Unix] Server=[Samba 3.3.0-0.25.fc11] Sharename Type Comment --------- ---- ------- shares Disk Documents for Apache HTTP Server, FTP, rsync, and Samba IPC$ IPC IPC Service (Samba Server Version 3.3.0-0.25.fc11)usernameDisk Home Directories Domain=[HOSTNAME] OS=[Unix] Server=[Samba 3.3.0-0.25.fc11] Server Comment --------- ------- Workgroup Master --------- ------- - Run
mkdir /test/as the root user to create a new directory. This directory will be used to mount thesharesSamba share. - Run the following command as the root user to mount the
sharesSamba share to/test/, replacingusernamewith the username from step 3:mount //localhost/shares /test/ -o user=
usernameEnter the password forusername, which was configured in step 3. - Run
cat /test/index.htmlto view the file, which is being shared through Samba:$ cat /test/index.html <html> <body> <p>Hello</p> </body> </html>
- Run
rpm -q httpdto confirm the httpd package is installed (version number may differ):$ rpm -q httpd httpd-2.2.11-6.i386
If this package is not installed, runyum install httpdas the root user to install it. - Change into the
/var/www/html/directory. Run the following command as the root user to create a link (namedshares) to the/shares/directory:ln -s /shares/ shares
- Run
service httpd startas the root user to start the Apache HTTP Server:service httpd start Starting httpd: [ OK ]
- Use a web browser to navigate to
http://localhost/shares. The/shares/index.htmlfile is displayed. - Run
rm -i /shares/index.htmlas the root user to remove theindex.htmlfile. - Run
touch /shares/file{1,2,3}as the root user to create three files in/shares/:# touch /shares/file{1,2,3} # ls -Z /shares/ -rw-r--r-- root root system_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0 file1 -rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0 file2 -rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0 file3 - Run
service httpd statusas the root user to see the status of the Apache HTTP Server. If the server is stopped, runservice httpd startas the root user to start it. - Use a web browser to navigate to
http://localhost/shares. A directory listing is displayed:
allow_ftpd_anon_write- When disabled, this Boolean prevents
vsftpdfrom writing to files and directories labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype. Turn this Boolean on to allow users to upload files via FTP. The directory where files are uploaded to must be labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype and Linux permissions set accordingly. allow_ftpd_full_access- When this Boolean is on, only Linux permissions are used to control access, and authenticated users can read and write to files that are not labeled with the
public_content_torpublic_content_rw_ttypes. allow_ftpd_use_cifs- Having this Boolean enabled allows
vsftpdto access files and directories labeled with thecifs_ttype; therefore, having this Boolean enabled allows you to share file systems mounted via Samba throughvsftpd. allow_ftpd_use_nfs- Having this Boolean enabled allows
vsftpdto access files and directories labeled with thenfs_ttype; therefore, having this Boolean enabled allows you to share file systems mounted via NFS throughvsftpd. ftp_home_dir- Having this Boolean enabled allows authenticated users to read and write to files in their home directories. When this Boolean is off, attempting to download a file from a home directory results in an error such as
550 Failed to open file. An SELinux denial is logged to/var/log/messages. ftpd_connect_db- Allow FTP daemons to initiate a connection to a database.
httpd_enable_ftp_server- Allow
httpdto listen on the FTP port and act as a FTP server. tftp_anon_write- Having this Boolean enabled allows TFTP access to a public directory, such as an area reserved for common files that otherwise has no special access restrictions.
- Run
mkdir -p /myftp/pubas the root user to create a new top-level directory. - Set Linux permissions on the
/myftp/pub/directory to allow a Linux user write access. This example changes the owner and group from root to owner user1 and group root. Replace user1 with the user you want to give write access to:# chown user1:root /myftp/pub # chmod 775 /myftp/pub
Thechowncommand changes the owner and group permissions. Thechmodcommand changes the mode, allowing the user1 user read, write, and execute permissions, and members of the root group read, write, and execute permissions. Everyone else has read and execute permissions: this is required to allow the Apache HTTP Server to read files from this directory. - When running SELinux, files and directories must be labeled correctly to allow access. Setting Linux permissions is not enough. Files labeled with the
public_content_ttype allow them to be read by FTP, Apache HTTP Server, Samba, and rsync. Files labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype can be written to by FTP. Other services, such as Samba, require Booleans to be set before they can write to files labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype. Label the top-level directory (/myftp/) with thepublic_content_ttype, to prevent copied or newly-created files under/myftp/from being written to or modified by services. Run the following command as the root user to add the label change to file-context configuration:semanage fcontext -a -t public_content_t /myftp
- Run
restorecon -R -v /myftp/to apply the label change:# restorecon -R -v /myftp/ restorecon reset /myftp context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0
- Confirm
/myftpis labeled with thepublic_content_ttype, and/myftp/pub/is labeled with thedefault_ttype:$ ls -dZ /myftp/ drwxr-xr-x. root root system_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0 /myftp/ $ ls -dZ /myftp/pub/ drwxrwxr-x. user1 root unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0 /myftp/pub/
- FTP must be allowed to write to a directory before users can upload files via FTP. SELinux allows FTP to write to directories labeled with the
public_content_rw_ttype. This example uses/myftp/pub/as the directory FTP can write to. Run the following command as the root user to add the label change to file-context configuration:semanage fcontext -a -t public_content_rw_t "/myftp/pub(/.*)?"
- Run
restorecon -R -v /myftp/pubas the root user to apply the label change:# restorecon -R -v /myftp/pub restorecon reset /myftp/pub context system_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:public_content_rw_t:s0
- The
allow_ftpd_anon_writeBoolean must be on to allowvsftpdto write to files that are labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype. Run the following command as the root user to turn this Boolean on:setsebool -P allow_ftpd_anon_write on
Do not use the-Poption if you do not want changes to persist across reboots. - Run
cd ~/to change into your home directory. Then, runmkdir myftpto create a directory to store files to upload via FTP. - Run
cd ~/myftpto change into the~/myftp/directory. In this directory, create anftpuploadfile. Copy the following contents into this file:File upload via FTP from a home directory.
- Run
getsebool allow_ftpd_anon_writeto confirm theallow_ftpd_anon_writeBoolean is on:$ getsebool allow_ftpd_anon_write allow_ftpd_anon_write --> on
If this Boolean is off, runsetsebool -P allow_ftpd_anon_write onas the root user to turn it on. Do not use the-Poption if you do not want the change to persist across reboots. - Run
service vsftpd startas the root user to startvsftpd:# service vsftpd start Starting vsftpd for vsftpd: [ OK ]
- Run
ftp localhost. When prompted for a username, enter the the username of the user who has write access, then, enter the correct password for that user:$ ftp localhost Connected to localhost (127.0.0.1). 220 (vsFTPd 2.1.0) Name (localhost:
username): 331 Please specify the password. Password:Enter the correct password230 Login successful. Remote system type is UNIX. Using binary mode to transfer files. ftp> public_content_t- Label files and directories you have created with the
public_content_ttype to share them read-only through vsftpd. Other services, such as Apache HTTP Server, Samba, and NFS, also have access to files labeled with this type. Files labeled with thepublic_content_ttype can not be written to, even if Linux permissions allow write access. If you require write access, use thepublic_content_rw_ttype. public_content_rw_t- Label files and directories you have created with the
public_content_rw_ttype to share them with read and write permissions throughvsftpd. Other services, such as Apache HTTP Server, Samba, and NFS, also have access to files labeled with this type; however, Booleans for each service must be turned on before such services can write to files labeled with this type. exim_can_connect_db- When enabled, this Boolean allows the
eximmailer to initiate connections to a database server. ftpd_connect_db- When enabled, this Boolean allows
ftpdaemons to initiate connections to a database server. httpd_can_network_connect_db- Enabling this Boolean is required for a web server to communicate with a database server.
- Run
ls -lZ /var/lib/mysqlto view the SELinux context of the default database location formysql:# ls -lZ /var/lib/mysql drwx------. mysql mysql unconfined_u:object_r:mysqld_db_t:s0 mysqlThis showsmysqld_db_twhich is the default context element for the location of database files. This context will have to be manually applied to the new database location that will be used in this example in order for it to function properly. - Enter
mysqlshow -u root -pand enter themysqldroot password to show the available databases:# mysqlshow -u root -p Enter password: ******* +--------------------+ | Databases | +--------------------+ | information_schema | | mysql | | test | | wikidb | +--------------------+
- Shut down the
mysqlddaemon withservice mysqld stopas the root user:# service mysqld stop Stopping MySQL: [ OK ]
- Create a new directory for the new location of the database(s). In this example,
/opt/mysqlis used:# mkdir -p /opt/mysql
- Copy the database files from the old location to the new location:
# cp -R /var/lib/mysql/* /opt/mysql/
- Change the ownership of this location to allow access by the mysql user and group. This sets the traditional Unix permissions which SELinux will still observe.
# chown -R mysql:mysql /opt/mysql
- Run
ls -lZ /optto see the initial context of the new directory:# ls -lZ /opt drwxr-xr-x. mysql mysql unconfined_u:object_r:usr_t:s0 mysqlThe contextusr_tof this newly created directory is not currently suitable to SELinux as a location for MySQL database files. Once the context has been changed, MySQL will be able to function properly in this area. - Open the main MySQL configuration file
/etc/my.cnfwith a text editor and modify thedatadiroption so that it refers to the new location. In this example the value that should be entered is/opt/mysql.[mysqld] datadir=/opt/mysql
Save this file and exit. - Run
service mysqld startas the root user to startmysqld. At this point a denial will be logged to/var/log/messages:# service mysqld start Timeout error occurred trying to start MySQL Daemon. Starting MySQL: [FAILED] # tail -f /var/log/messages localhost setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing mysqld (mysqld_t) "write" usr_t. For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l 50d8e725-994b-499c-9caf-a676c50fb802
The reason for this denial is that/opt/mysqlis not labeled correctly for MySQL data files. SELinux is stopping MySQL from having access to the content labeled asusr_t. Perform the following steps to resolve this problem: - Run the
semanagecommand to add a context mapping for/opt/mysql:semanage fcontext -a -t mysqld_db_t "/opt/mysql(/.*)?"
- This mapping is written to the
/etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.localfile:# grep -i mysql /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.local /opt/mysql(/.*)? system_u:object_r:mysqld_db_t:s0
- Now use the
restoreconcommand to apply this context mapping to the running system:restorecon -R -v /opt/mysql
- Now that the
/opt/mysqllocation has been labeled with the correct context for MySQL, themysqlddaemon starts:# service mysqld start Starting MySQL: [ OK ]
- Confirm the context has changed for
/opt/mysql:ls -lZ /opt drwxr-xr-x. mysql mysql system_u:object_r:mysqld_db_t:s0 mysql - The location has been changed and labeled, and the
mysqlddaemon has started successfully. At this point all running services should be tested to confirm normal operation. mysqld_db_t- This type is used for the location of the MySQL database. In Fedora 11, the default location for the database is
/var/lib/mysql, however this can be changed. If the location for the MySQL database is changed, the new location must be labeled with this type. Refer to the following example for instructions on how to change the default database location and how to label the new section appropriately. mysqld_etc_t- This type is used for the MySQL main configuration file
/etc/my.cnfand any other configuration files in the/etc/mysqldirectory. mysqld_exec_t- This type is used for the
mysqldbinary located at/usr/libexec/mysqld, which is the default location for the MySQL binary on Fedora 11. Other systems may locate this binary at/usr/sbin/mysqldwhich should also be labeled with this type. mysqld_initrc_exec_t- This type is used for the initialization file for MySQL, located at
/etc/rc.d/init.d/mysqldby default in Fedora 11. mysqld_log_t- Logs for MySQL need to be labeled with this type for proper operation. All log files in
/var/log/matching themysql.*wildcard must be labeled with this type. mysqld_var_run_t- This type is used by files in
/var/run/mysqld, specifically the process id (PID) named/var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pidwhich is created by themysqlddaemon when it runs. This type is also used for related socket files such as/var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock. Files such as these must be labeled correctly for proper operation as a confined service. - Run the
setseboolcommand to disable read/write mounting of NFS file systems:setsebool -P nfs_export_all_rw off
Note
Do not use the-Poption if you do not wantsetseboolchanges to persist across reboots. - Run
rpm -q nfs-utilsto confirm the nfs-utils package is installed. The nfs-utils package provides support programs for using NFS and should be installed on a NFS server and on any clients in use. If this package is not installed, install it by runningyum installas the root user.nfs-utils - Run
mkdir /myshareas the root user to create a new top-level directory to share using NFS. - Run
touch /myshare/file1as the root user to create a new empty file in the shared area. This file will be accessed later by the client. - To show that SELinux is still able to block access even when Linux permissions are completely open, give the
/mysharedirectory full Linux access rights for all users:# chmod -R 777 /myshare
Warning
This is an example only and these permissions should not be used in a production system. - Edit the
/etc/exportsfile and add the following line to the top of the file:/myshare 192.168.1.100(rw)
This entry shows the full path on the server to the shared folder/myshare, the host or network range thatnfs-srvwill share to (in this case the IP address of a single host,nfs-clientat192.168.1.100), and finally the share permissions. Read and write permissions are given here, as indicated by(rw). - The TCP and UDP ports used for NFS are assigned dynamically by rpcbind, which can cause problems when creating firewall rules. To simplify the process of allowing NFS traffic through the firewall in this example, edit the /etc/sysconfig/nfs file and uncomment the
MOUNTD_PORT,STATD_PORT,LOCKD_TCPPORTandLOCKD_UDPPORTvariables. Changing the port numbers in this file is not required for this example.Ensure that incoming connections on TCP ports 111, 892 and 2049 are allowed through the server's firewall. This can be done via the system-config-firewall tool in Fedora. - Run
service nfs startas the root user to start NFS and its related services:# service nfs start Starting NFS services: [ OK ] Starting NFS quotas: [ OK ] Starting NFS daemon: [ OK ] Starting NFS mountd: [ OK ]
- To ensure that the NFS subsystem export table is updated, run
exportfs -rvas the root user:# exportfs -rv exporting 192.168.1.100:/myshare
- Run
showmount -eas the root user to show all exported file systems:# showmount -e Export list for nfs-srv: /myshare 192.168.1.100
var_lib_nfs_t- This type is used for existing and new files copied to or created in the
/var/lib/nfsdirectory. This type should not need to be changed in normal operation. To restore changes to the default settings, run therestorecon -R -v /var/lib/nfscommand as the root user. nfsd_exec_t- The
/usr/sbin/rpc.nfsdfile is labeled with thenfsd_exec_t, as are other system executables and libraries related to NFS. Users should not label any files with this type.nfsd_exec_twill transition tonfs_t. allow_postfix_local_write_mail_spool- Having this Boolean enables Postfix to write to the local mail spool on the system. Postfix requires this Boolean to be enabled for normal operation when local spools are used.
- Run the
semanagecommand to show the port that SELinux allowsspamdto listen on by default:# semanage port -l | grep spamd spamd_port_t tcp 783
This output shows that TCP/783 is defined inspamd_port_tas the port for SpamAssassin to operate on. - Edit the
/etc/sysconfig/spamassassinconfiguration file and modify it so that it will start SpamAssassin on the example port TCP/10000:# Options to spamd SPAMDOPTIONS="-d -p 10000 -c m5 -H"
This line now specifies that SpamAssassin will operate on port 10000. The rest of this example will show how to modify SELinux policy to allow this socket to be opened. - Start SpamAssassin and an error message similar to the following will appear:
/etc/init.d/spamassassin start Starting spamd: [2203] warn: server socket setup failed, retry 1: spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied [2203] warn: server socket setup failed, retry 2: spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied [2203] error: spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied spamd: could not create INET socket on 127.0.0.1:10000: Permission denied [FAILED]This output means that SELinux has blocked access to this port. - A denial similar to the following will be logged by SELinux:
SELinux is preventing the spamd (spamd_t) from binding to port 10000.
- As the root user, run the
semanagecommand to modify SELinux policy in order to allow SpamAssassin to operate on the example port (TCP/10000):semanage port -a -t spamd_port_t -p tcp 10000
- Confirm that SpamAssassin will now start and is operating on TCP port 10000:
# /etc/init.d/spamassassin start Starting spamd: [ OK ] # netstat -lnp | grep 10000 tcp 0 0 127.0.0.1:10000 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN 2224/spamd.pid
- At this point,
spamdis properly operating on TCP port 10000 as it has been allowed access to that port by SELinux policy. postfix_etc_t- This type is used for configuration files for Postfix in
/etc/postfix. postfix_data_t- This type is used for Postfix data files in
/var/lib/postfix. allow_user_postgresql_connect- Having this Boolean enabled allows any user domain (as defined by PostgreSQL) to make connections to the database server.
- Run
ls -lZ /var/lib/pgsqlto view the SELinux context of the default database location forpostgresql:# ls -lZ /var/lib/pgsql drwx------. postgres postgres system_u:object_r:postgresql_db_t:s0 dataThis showspostgresql_db_twhich is the default context element for the location of database files. This context will have to be manually applied to the new database location that will be used in this example in order for it to function properly. - Create a new directory for the new location of the database(s). In this example,
/opt/postgresql/datais used. If you use a different location, replace the text in the following steps with your location:# mkdir -p /opt/postgresql/data
- Perform a directory listing of the new location. Note that the initial context of the new directory is usr_t. This context is not sufficient for SELinux to offer its protection mechanisms to PostgreSQL. Once the context has been changed, it will be able to function properly in the new area.
# ls -lZ /opt/postgresql/ drwxr-xr-x. root root unconfined_u:object_r:usr_t:s0 data - Change the ownership of the new location to allow access by the postgres user and group. This sets the traditional Unix permissions which SELinux will still observe.
# chown -R postgres:postgres /opt/postgresql
- Open the PostgreSQL init file
/etc/rc.d/init.d/postgresqlwith a text editor and modify allPGDATAandPGLOGvariables to point to the new location:# vi /etc/rc.d/init.d/postgresql PGDATA=/opt/postgresql/data PGLOG=/opt/postgresql/data/pgstartup.log
Save this file and exit the text editor. - Initialize the database in the new location.
su - postgres -c "initdb -D /opt/postgresql/data"
- Run the
semanagecommand to add a context mapping for/opt/postgresqland any other directories/files within it:semanage fcontext -a -t postgresql_db_t "/opt/postgresql(/.*)?"
- This mapping is written to the
/etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.localfile:# grep -i postgresql /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.local /opt/postgresql(/.*)? system_u:object_r:postgresql_db_t:s0
- Now use the
restoreconcommand to apply this context mapping to the running system:restorecon -R -v /opt/postgresql
- Now that the
/opt/postgresqllocation has been labeled with the correct context for PostgreSQL, themysqldservice will start successfully:# service postgresql start Starting postgreSQL service: [ OK ]
- Confirm the context is correct for
/opt/postgresql:ls -lZ /opt drwxr-xr-x. root root system_u:object_r:postgresql_db_t:s0 postgresql - Check with the
pscommand that thepostgresqlprocess displays the new location:# ps aux | grep -i postmaster postgres 21564 0.3 0.3 42308 4032 ? S 10:13 0:00 /usr/bin/postmaster -p 5432 -D /opt/postgresql/data - The location has been changed and labeled, and the
postgresqldaemon has started successfully. At this point all running services should be tested to confirm normal operation. postgresql_db_t- This type is used for several locations. The locations labeled with this type are used for data files for PostgreSQL:
/usr/lib/pgsql/test/regres/usr/share/jonas/pgsql/var/lib/pgsql/data/var/lib/postgres(ql)?
postgresql_etc_t- This type is used for configuration files in
/etc/postgresql. postgresql_exec_t- This type is used for several locations. The locations labeled with this type are used for binaries for PostgreSQL:
/usr/bin/initdb(.sepgsql)?/usr/bin/(se)?postgres/usr/lib(64)?/postgresql/bin/.*/usr/lib/phsql/test/regress/pg_regress
postgresql_initrc_exec_t- This type is used for the PostgreSQL initialization file located at
/etc/rc.d/init.d/postgresql. postgresql_log_t- This type is used for several locations. The locations labeled with this type are used for log files:
/var/lib/pgsql/logfile/var/lib/pgsql/pgstartup.log/var/lib/sepgsql/pgstartup.log/var/log/postgresql/var/log/postgres.log.*/var/log/rhdb/rhdb/var/log/sepostgresql.log.*
postgresql_var_run_t- This type is used for run-time files for PostgreSQL, such as the process id (PID) in
/var/run/postgresql. allow_smbd_anon_write- Having this Boolean enables allows
smbdto write to a public directory, such as an area reserved for common files that otherwise has no special access restrictions. samba_create_home_dirs- Having this Boolean enabled allows Samba to create new home directories independently. This is often done by mechanisms such as PAM.
samba_domain_controller- When enabled, this Boolean allows Samba to act as a domain controller, as well as giving it permission to execute related commands such as
useradd,groupaddandpasswd. samba_enable_home_dirs- Enabling this Boolean allows Samba to share users' home directories.
samba_export_all_ro- Export any file or directory, allowing read-only permissions. This allows files and directories that are not labeled with the
samba_share_ttype to be shared through Samba. When thesamba_export_all_roBoolean is on, but thesamba_export_all_rwBoolean is off, write access to Samba shares is denied, even if write access is configured in/etc/samba/smb.conf, as well as Linux permissions allowing write access. samba_export_all_rw- Export any file or directory, allowing read and write permissions. This allows files and directories that are not labeled with the
samba_share_ttype to be exported through Samba. Permissions in/etc/samba/smb.confand Linux permissions must be configured to allow write access. samba_run_unconfined- Having this Boolean enabled allows Samba to run unconfined scripts in the
/var/lib/samba/scriptsdirectory. samba_share_fusefs- This Boolean must be enabled for Samba to share
fusefsfile systems. samba_share_nfs- Disabling this Boolean prevents
smbdfrom having full access to NFS shares via Samba. Enabling this Boolean will allow Samba to share NFS file systems. use_samba_home_dirs- Enable this Boolean to use a remote server for Samba home directories.
virt_use_samba- Allow virt to manage CIFS files.
- Run
rpm -q samba samba-common samba-clientto confirm the samba, samba-common, and samba-client packages are installed. If any of these packages are not installed, install them by runningyum installas the root user.package-name - Run
mkdir /myshareas the root user to create a new top-level directory to share files through Samba. - Run
touch /myshare/file1as the root user to create an empty file. This file is used later to verify the Samba share mounted correctly. - SELinux allows Samba to read and write to files labeled with the
samba_share_ttype, as long as/etc/samba/smb.confand Linux permissions are set accordingly. Run the following command as the root user to add the label change to file-context configuration:semanage fcontext -a -t samba_share_t "/myshare(/.*)?"
- Run
restorecon -R -v /myshareas the root user to apply the label changes:# restorecon -R -v /myshare restorecon reset /myshare context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:samba_share_t:s0 restorecon reset /myshare/file1 context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:samba_share_t:s0
- Edit
/etc/samba/smb.confas the root user. Add the following to the bottom of this file to share the /myshare/ directory through Samba:[myshare] comment = My share path = /myshare public = yes writeable = no
- A Samba account is required to mount a Samba file system. Run
smbpasswd -aas the root user to create a Samba account, whereusernameusernameis an existing Linux user. For example,smbpasswd -a testusercreates a Samba account for the Linux testuser user:# smbpasswd -a testuser New SMB password:
Enter a passwordRetype new SMB password:Enter the same password againAdded user testuser.Runningsmbpasswd -a, whereusernameusernameis the username of a Linux account that does not exist on the system, causes aCannot locate Unix account for 'error.username'! - Run
service smb startas the root user to start the Samba service:service smb start Starting SMB services: [ OK ]
- Run
smbclient -Uto list the available shares, whereusername-L localhostusernameis the Samba account added in step 7. When prompted for a password, enter the password assigned to the Samba account in step 7 (version numbers may differ):$ smbclient -U
username-L localhost Enterusername's password: Domain=[HOSTNAME] OS=[Unix] Server=[Samba 3.3.0-0.25.fc11] Sharename Type Comment --------- ---- ------- myshare Disk My share IPC$ IPC IPC Service (Samba Server Version 3.3.0-0.25.fc11)usernameDisk Home Directories Domain=[HOSTNAME] OS=[Unix] Server=[Samba 3.3.0-0.25.fc11] Server Comment --------- ------- Workgroup Master --------- ------- - Run
mkdir /test/as the root user to create a new directory. This directory will be used to mount themyshareSamba share. - Run the following command as the root user to mount the
myshareSamba share to/test/, replacingusernamewith the username from step 7:mount //localhost/myshare /test/ -o user=
usernameEnter the password forusername, which was configured in step 7. - Run
ls /test/to view thefile1file created in step 3:$ ls /test/ file1
squid_connect_any- When enabled, this Boolean permits squid to initiate a connection to a remote host on any port.
- As the root user, install the squid package. Run
rpm -q squidto see if the squid package is installed. If it is not installed, runyum install squidas the root user to install it. - Edit the main configuration file,
/etc/squid/squid.confand confirm that thecache_dirdirective is uncommented and looks similar to the following:cache_dir ufs /var/spool/squid 100 16 256
This line specifies the default settings for thecache_dirdirective to be used in this example; it consists of the Squid storage format (ufs), the directory on the system where the cache resides (/var/spool/squid), the amount of disk space in megabytes to be used for the cache (100), and finally the number of first-level and second-level cache directories to be created (16 and 256 respectively). - In the same configuration file, make sure the
http_access allow localnetdirective is uncommented. This allows traffic from thelocalnetACL which is automatically configured in a default installation of Squid on Fedora 11. It will allow client machines on any existing RFC1918 network to have access through the proxy, which is sufficient for this simple example. - In the same configuration file, make sure the
visible_hostnamedirective is uncommented and is configured to the hostname of the machine. The value should be the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) of the host:visible_hostname squid.example.com
- As the root user, run
service squid startto startsquid. As this is the first timesquidhas started, this command will initialise the cache directories as specified above in thecache_dirdirective and will then start thesquiddaemon. The output is as follows ifsquidstarts successfully:# /sbin/service squid start init_cache_dir /var/spool/squid... Starting squid: . [ OK ]
- Confirm that the
squidprocess ID (PID) has started as a confined service, as seen here by thesquid_var_run_tvalue:# ls -lZ /var/run/squid.pid -rw-r--r--. root squid unconfined_u:object_r:squid_var_run_t:s0 /var/run/squid.pid - At this point, a client machine connected to the
localnetACL configured earlier is successfully able to use the internal interface of this host as its proxy. This can be configured in the settings for all common web browsers, or system-wide. Squid is now listening on the default port of the target machine (TCP 3128), but the target machine will only allow outgoing connections to other services on the Internet via common ports. This is a policy defined by SELinux itself. SELinux will deny access to non-standard ports, as shown in the next step: - When a client makes a request using a non-standard port through the Squid proxy such as a website listening on TCP port 10000, a denial similar to the following is logged:
SELinux is preventing the squid daemon from connecting to network port 10000
- To allow this access, the
squid_connect_anyBoolean must be modified, as it is disabled by default. To turn thesquid_connect_anyBoolean on, run the following command as the root user:# setsebool -P squid_connect_any on
Note
Do not use the-Poption if you do not wantsetseboolchanges to persist across reboots. - The client will now be able to access non-standard ports on the Internet as Squid is now permitted to initiate connections to any port, on behalf of its clients.
httpd_squid_script_exec_t- This type is used for utilities such as
cachemgr.cgi, which provides a variety of statistics about squid and its configuration. squid_cache_t- Use this type for data that is cached by squid, as defined by the
cache_dirdirective in/etc/squid/squid.conf. By default, files created in or copied into/var/cache/squidand/var/spool/squidare labeled with thesquid_cache_ttype. Files for the squidGuard URL redirector plugin forsquidcreated in or copied to/var/squidGuardare also labeled with thesquid_cache_ttype. Squid is only able to use files and directories that are labeled with this type for its cached data. squid_conf_t- This type is used for the directories and files that
squiduses for its configuration. Existing files, or those created in or copied to/etc/squidand/usr/share/squidare labeled with this type, including error messages and icons. squid_exec_t- This type is used for the squid binary,
/usr/sbin/squid. squid_log_t- This type is used for logs. Existing files, or those created in or copied to
/var/log/squidor/var/log/squidGuardmust be labeled with this type. squid_initrc_exec_t- This type is used for the initialization file required to start
squidwhich is located at/etc/rc.d/init.d/squid. squid_var_run_t- This type is used by files in
/var/run, especially the process id (PID) named/var/run/squid.pidwhich is created by squid when it runs. - Run the
sestatuscommand to confirm that SELinux is enabled, is running in enforcing mode, and that targeted policy is being used:$ /usr/sbin/sestatus SELinux status: enabled SELinuxfs mount: /selinux Current mode: enforcing Mode from config file: enforcing Policy version: 23 Policy from config file: targeted
SELinux status: enabledis returned when SELinux is enabled.Current mode: enforcingis returned when SELinux is running in enforcing mode.Policy from config file: targetedis returned when the SELinux targeted policy is used. - As the root user, run the
touch /var/www/html/testfilecommand to create a file. - Run the
ls -Z /var/www/html/testfilecommand to view the SELinux context:-rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /var/www/html/testfile
Thetestfilefile is labeled with the SELinuxunconfined_uuser because a Linux user that is mapped to theunconfined_uSELinux user created the file. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) is used for processes, not files. Roles do not have a meaning for files - theobject_rrole is a generic role used for files (on persistent storage and network file systems). Under the/proc/directory, files related to processes may use thesystem_rrole.[3] Thehttpd_sys_content_ttype allows thehttpdprocess to access this file. - As the root user, run the
service httpd startcommand to start thehttpdprocess. The output is as follows ifhttpdstarts successfully:# /sbin/service httpd start Starting httpd: [ OK ]
- Change into a directory where your Linux user has write access to, and run the
wget http://localhost/testfilecommand. Unless there are changes to the default configuration, this command succeeds:--2009-03-16 23:00:01-- http://localhost/testfile Resolving localhost... 127.0.0.1 Connecting to localhost|127.0.0.1|:80... connected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response... 200 OK Length: 0 [text/plain] Saving to: `testfile' [ <=> ] 0 --.-K/s in 0s 2009-03-16 23:00:01 (0.00 B/s) - `testfile' saved [0/0]
- The
chconcommand relabels files; however, such label changes do not survive when the file system is relabeled. For permanent changes that survive a file system relabel, use thesemanagecommand, which is discussed later. As the root user, run the following command to change the type to a type used by Samba:chcon -t samba_share_t /var/www/html/testfileRun thels -Z /var/www/html/testfilecommand to view the changes:-rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:samba_share_t:s0 /var/www/html/testfile
- Note: the current DAC permissions allow the
httpdprocess access totestfile. Change into a directory where your Linux user has write access to, and run thewget http://localhost/testfilecommand. Unless there are changes to the default configuration, this command fails:--2009-03-16 23:00:54-- http://localhost/testfile Resolving localhost... 127.0.0.1 Connecting to localhost|127.0.0.1|:80... connected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response... 403 Forbidden 2009-03-16 23:00:54 ERROR 403: Forbidden.
- As the root user, run the
rm -i /var/www/html/testfilecommand to removetestfile. - If you do not require
httpdto be running, as the root user, run theservice httpd stopcommand to stophttpd:# /sbin/service httpd stop Stopping httpd: [ OK ]
- Run the
sestatuscommand to confirm that SELinux is enabled, is running in enforcing mode, and that targeted policy is being used:$ /usr/sbin/sestatus SELinux status: enabled SELinuxfs mount: /selinux Current mode: enforcing Mode from config file: enforcing Policy version: 23 Policy from config file: targeted
SELinux status: enabledis returned when SELinux is enabled.Current mode: enforcingis returned when SELinux is running in enforcing mode.Policy from config file: targetedis returned when the SELinux targeted policy is used. - As the root user, run the
touch /var/www/html/test2filecommand to create a file. - Run the
ls -Z /var/www/html/test2filecommand to view the SELinux context:-rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /var/www/html/test2file
test2fileis labeled with the SELinuxunconfined_uuser because a Linux user that is mapped to theunconfined_uSELinux user created the file. RBAC is used for processes, not files. Roles do not have a meaning for files - theobject_rrole is a generic role used for files (on persistent storage and network file systems). Under the/proc/directory, files related to processes may use thesystem_rrole.[4] Thehttpd_sys_content_ttype allows thehttpdprocess to access this file. - The
chconcommand relabels files; however, such label changes do not survive when the file system is relabeled. For permanent changes that survive a file system relabel, use thesemanagecommand, which is discussed later. As the root user, run the following command to change the type to a type used by Samba:chcon -t samba_share_t /var/www/html/test2fileRun thels -Z /var/www/html/test2filecommand to view the changes:-rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:samba_share_t:s0 /var/www/html/test2file
- Run the
service httpd statuscommand to confirm that thehttpdprocess is not running:$ /sbin/service httpd status httpd is stopped
If the output differs, run theservice httpd stopcommand as the root user to stop thehttpdprocess:# /sbin/service httpd stop Stopping httpd: [ OK ]
- To make the
httpdprocess run unconfined, run the following command as the root user to change the type of/usr/sbin/httpd, to a type that does not transition to a confined domain:chcon -t unconfined_exec_t /usr/sbin/httpd - Run the
ls -Z /usr/sbin/httpdcommand to confirm that/usr/sbin/httpdis labeled with theunconfined_exec_ttype:-rwxr-xr-x root root system_u:object_r:unconfined_exec_t /usr/sbin/httpd
- As the root user, run the
service httpd startcommand to start thehttpdprocess. The output is as follows ifhttpdstarts successfully:# /sbin/service httpd start Starting httpd: [ OK ]
- Run the
ps -eZ | grep httpdcommand to view thehttpdprocesses running in theunconfined_tdomain:$ ps -eZ | grep httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t
7721? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7723? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7724? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7725? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7726? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7727? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7728? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7729? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:unconfined_t7730? 00:00:00 httpd - Change into a directory where your Linux user has write access to, and run the
wget http://localhost/test2filecommand. Unless there are changes to the default configuration, this command succeeds:--2008-09-07 01:41:10-- http://localhost/test2file Resolving localhost... 127.0.0.1 Connecting to localhost|127.0.0.1|:80... connected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response... 200 OK Length: 0 [text/plain] Saving to: `test2file.1' [ <=> ]--.-K/s in 0s 2008-09-07 01:41:10 (0.00 B/s) - `test2file.1' saved [0/0]
Although thehttpdprocess does not have access to files labeled with thesamba_share_ttype,httpdis running in the unconfinedunconfined_tdomain, and falls back to using DAC rules, and as such, thewgetcommand succeeds. Hadhttpdbeen running in the confinedhttpd_tdomain, thewgetcommand would have failed. - The
restoreconcommand restores the default SELinux context for files. As the root user, run therestorecon -v /usr/sbin/httpdcommand to restore the default SELinux context for/usr/sbin/httpd:# /sbin/restorecon -v /usr/sbin/httpd restorecon reset /usr/sbin/httpd context system_u:object_r:unconfined_notrans_exec_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_exec_t:s0
Run thels -Z /usr/sbin/httpdcommand to confirm that/usr/sbin/httpdis labeled with thehttpd_exec_ttype:$ ls -Z /usr/sbin/httpd -rwxr-xr-x root root system_u:object_r:httpd_exec_t /usr/sbin/httpd
- As the root user, run the
/sbin/service httpd restartcommand to restarthttpd. After restarting, run theps -eZ | grep httpdto confirm thathttpdis running in the confinedhttpd_tdomain:# /sbin/service httpd restart Stopping httpd: [ OK ] Starting httpd: [ OK ] # ps -eZ | grep httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8880 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8882 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8883 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8884 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8885 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8886 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8887 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8888 ? 00:00:00 httpd unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t 8889 ? 00:00:00 httpd
- As the root user, run the
rm -i /var/www/html/test2filecommand to removetest2file. - If you do not require
httpdto be running, as the root user, run theservice httpd stopcommand to stophttpd:# /sbin/service httpd stop Stopping httpd: [ OK ]
allow_httpd_anon_write- When disabled, this Boolean allows
httpdonly read access to files labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype. Enabling this Boolean will allowhttpdto write to files labeled with thepublic_content_rw_ttype, such as a public directory containing files for a public file transfer service. allow_httpd_mod_auth_ntlm_winbind- Enabling this Boolean allows access to NTLM and Winbind authentication mechanisms via the
mod_auth_ntlm_winbindmodule inhttpd. allow_httpd_mod_auth_pam- Enabling this Boolean allows access to PAM authentication mechanisms via the
mod_auth_pammodule inhttpd. allow_httpd_sys_script_anon_write- This Boolean defines whether or not HTTP scripts are allowed write access to files labeled with the
public_content_rw_ttype, as used in a public file transfer service. httpd_builtin_scripting- This Boolean defines access to
httpdscripting. Having this Boolean enabled is often required for PHP content. httpd_can_network_connect- When disabled, this Boolean prevents HTTP scripts and modules from initiating a connection to a network or remote port. Turn this Boolean on to allow this access.
httpd_can_network_connect_db- When disabled, this Boolean prevents HTTP scripts and modules from initiating a connection to database servers. Turn this Boolean on to allow this access.
httpd_can_network_relay- Turn this Boolean on when
httpdis being used as a forward or reverse proxy. httpd_can_sendmail- When disabled, this Boolean prevents HTTP modules from sending mail. This can prevent spam attacks should a vulnerability be found in
httpd. Turn this Boolean on to allow HTTP modules to send mail. httpd_dbus_avahi- When off, this Boolean denies
httpdaccess to theavahiservice viaD-Bus. Turn this Boolean on to allow this access. httpd_enable_cgi- When disabled, this Boolean prevents
httpdfrom executing CGI scripts. Turn this Boolean on to allowhttpdto execute CGI scripts (CGI scripts must be labeled with thehttpd_sys_script_exec_ttype). httpd_enable_ftp_server- Turning this Boolean on will allow
httpdto listen on the FTP port and act as an FTP server. httpd_enable_homedirs- When disabled, this Boolean prevents
httpdfrom accessing user home directories. Turn this Boolean on to allowhttpdaccess to user home directories; for example, content in/home/*/. httpd_execmem- When enabled, this Boolean allows
httpdto execute programs that require memory addresses that are both executable and writeable. Enabling this Boolean is not recommended from a security standpoint as it reduces protection against buffer overflows, however certain modules and applications (such as Java and Mono applications) require this privilege. httpd_ssi_exec- This Boolean defines whether or not server side include (SSI) elements in a web page can be executed.
httpd_tty_comm- This Boolean defines whether or not
httpdis allowed access to the controlling terminal. Usually this access is not required, however in cases such as configuring an SSL certificate file, terminal access is required to display and process a password prompt. httpd_unified- When enabled, this Boolean allows
httpd_tcomplete access to all of thehttpdtypes (i.e. to execute, read, or write sys_content_t). When disabled, there is separation in place between web content that is read-only, writeable or executable. Disabling this Boolean ensures an extra level of security but adds the administrative overhead of having to individually label scripts and other web content based on the file access that each should have. httpd_use_cifs- Turn this Boolean on to allow
httpdaccess to files on CIFS file systems that are labeled with thecifs_ttype, such as file systems mounted via Samba. httpd_use_nfs- Turn this Boolean on to allow
httpdaccess to files on NFS file systems that are labeled with thenfs_ttype, such as file systems mounted via NFS. - Run
mkdir /mywebsiteas the root user to create a top-level directory. - As the root user, create a
/mywebsite/index.htmlfile. Copy and paste the following content into/mywebsite/index.html:<html> <h2>index.html from /mywebsite/</h2> </html>
- To allow the Apache HTTP Server read only access to
/mywebsite/, as well as files and subdirectories under it, label/mywebsite/with thehttpd_sys_content_ttype. Run the following command as the root user to add the label change to file-context configuration:# semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/mywebsite(/.*)?"
- Run
restorecon -R -v /mywebsiteas the root user to make the label changes:# restorecon -R -v /mywebsite restorecon reset /mywebsite context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 restorecon reset /mywebsite/index.html context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0
- For this example, edit
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.confas the root user. Comment out the existingDocumentRootoption. Add aDocumentRoot "/mywebsite"option. After editing, these options should look as follows:#DocumentRoot "/var/www/html" DocumentRoot "/mywebsite"
- Run
service httpd statusas the root user to see the status of the Apache HTTP Server. If the server is stopped, runservice httpd startas the root user to start it. If the server is running, runservice httpd restartas the root user to restart the service (this also applies any changes made tohttpd.conf). - Use a web browser to navigate to
http://localhost/index.html. The following is displayed:index.html from /mywebsite/
- Run
ls -dZ /var/www/htmlto view the SELinux context of/var/www/html/:$ ls -dZ /var/www/html drwxr-xr-x root root system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /var/www/html
This shows/var/www/html/is labeled with thehttpd_sys_content_ttype. - Run
touch /var/www/html/file1as the root user to create a new file. - Run
ls -Z /var/www/html/file1to view the SELinux context:$ ls -Z /var/www/html/file1 -rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /var/www/html/file1
httpd_sys_content_t- Use this type for static web content, such as
.htmlfiles used by a static website. Files labeled with this type are accessible (read only) tohttpdand scripts executed byhttpd. By default, files and directories labeled with this type can not be written to or modified byhttpdor other processes. Note: by default, files created in or copied into/var/www/html/are labeled with thehttpd_sys_content_ttype. httpd_sys_script_exec_t- Use this type for scripts you want
httpdto execute. This type is commonly used for Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts in/var/www/cgi-bin/. By default, SELinux policy preventshttpdfrom executing CGI scripts. To allow this, label the scripts with thehttpd_sys_script_exec_ttype and turn thehttpd_enable_cgiBoolean on. Scripts labeled withhttpd_sys_script_exec_trun in thehttpd_sys_script_tdomain when executed byhttpd. Thehttpd_sys_script_tdomain has access to other system domains, such aspostgresql_tandmysqld_t. httpd_sys_content_rw_t- Files labeled with this type can be written to by scripts labeled with the
httpd_sys_script_exec_ttype, but can not be modified by scripts labeled with any other type. You must use thehttpd_sys_content_rw_ttype to label files that will be read from and written to by scripts labeled with thehttpd_sys_script_exec_ttype. httpd_sys_content_ra_t- Files labeled with this type can be appended to by scripts labeled with the
httpd_sys_script_exec_ttype, but can not be modified by scripts labeled with any other type. You must use thehttpd_sys_content_ra_ttype to label files that will be read from and appended to by scripts labeled with thehttpd_sys_script_exec_ttype. httpd_unconfined_script_exec_t- Scripts labeled with this type run without SELinux protection. Only use this type for complex scripts, after exhausting all other options. It is better to use this type instead of turning SELinux protection off for
httpd, or for the entire system. - Run
mkdir -p /my/websiteas the root user to create a top-level directory structure to store files to be used byhttpd. - Files and directories that do not match a pattern in file-context configuration may be labeled with the
default_ttype. This type is inaccessible to confined services:$ ls -dZ /my drwxr-xr-x root root unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0 /my
- Run
chcon -R -t httpd_sys_content_t /my/as the root user to change the type of the/my/directory and subdirectories, to a type accessible tohttpd. Now, files created under/my/website/inherit thehttpd_sys_content_ttype, rather than thedefault_ttype, and are therefore accessible to httpd:# chcon -R -t httpd_sys_content_t /my/ # touch /my/website/index.html # ls -Z /my/website/index.html -rw-r--r-- root root unconfined_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /my/website/index.html
- Run
mkdir -p /my/websiteas the root user to create a top-level directory structure to store files to be used byhttpd. - Run the following command as the root user to add the label change to file-context configuration:
semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/my(/.*)?"
The"/my(/.*)?"expression means the label change applies to the/my/directory and all files and directories under it. - Run
touch /my/website/index.htmlas the root user to create a new file. - Run
restorecon -R -v /my/as the root user to apply the label changes (restoreconreads file-context configuration, which was modified by thesemanagecommand in step 2):# restorecon -R -v /my/ restorecon reset /my context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 restorecon reset /my/website context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 restorecon reset /my/website/index.html context unconfined_u:object_r:default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0
allow_rsync_anon_write- Having this Boolean enabled allows
rsyncin the rsync_t domain to manage files, links and directories that have a type of public_content_rw_t. Often these are public files used for public file transfer services. Files and directories must be labeledpublic_content_rw_t. rsync_client- Having this Boolean enabled aloows
rsyncto initiate connections to ports defined as rsync_port_t, as well as allowingrsyncto manage files, links and directories that have a type of rsync_data_t. Note that thersyncdaemon must be in the rsync_t domain in order for SELinux to enact its control overrsync. The configuration example in this chapter demonstratesrsyncrunning in the rsync_t domain. rsync_export_all_ro- Having this Boolean enabled allows
rsyncin the rsync_t domain to export NFS and CIFS file systems with read-only access to clients. - Run
getenforceto confirm SELinux is running in enforcing mode:$ getenforce Enforcing
Thegetenforcecommand returnsEnforcingwhen SELinux is running in enforcing mode. - Run the
whichcommand to confirm that the rsync binary is in the system path:$ which rsync /usr/bin/rsync
- When running
rsyncas a daemon, a configuration file should be used and saved as/etc/rsyncd.conf. Note that the following configuration file used in this example is very simple and is not indicative of all the possible options that are available, rather it is just enough to demonstrate thersyncdaemon:log file = /var/log/rsyncd.log pid file = /var/run/rsyncd.pid lock file = /var/run/rsync.lock [files] path = /srv/files comment = file area read only = false timeout = 300 - Now that a simple configuration file exists for rsync to operate in daemon mode, this step demonstrates that simply running
rsync --daemonis not sufficient for SELinux to offer its protection over rsync. Refer to the following output:# rsync --daemon # ps x | grep rsync 8231 ? Ss 0:00 rsync --daemon 8233 pts/3 S+ 0:00 grep rsync # ps -eZ | grep rsync unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 8231 ? 00:00:00 rsyncNote that in the output from the finalpscommand, the context shows thersyncdaemon running in theunconfined_tdomain. This indicates that rsync has not transitioned to thersync_tdomain as it was launched by thersync --daemoncommand. At this point SELinux can not enforce its rules and policy over this daemon. Refer to the following steps to see how to fix this problem. In the following steps,rsyncwill transition to thersync_tdomain by launching it from a properly-labeled init script. Only then can SELinux and its protection mechanisms have an effect overrsync. Thisrsyncprocess should be killed before proceeding to the next step. - A custom init script for rsync is needed for this step. There is an example init script available at http://www.fredshack.com/docs/rsync.html. Save it to
/etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd. The following steps show how to label this script asinitrc_exec_t: - Run the
semanagecommand to add a context mapping for/etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd:semanage fcontext -a -t initrc_exec_t "/etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd"
- This mapping is written to the
/etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.localfile:# grep rsync /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.local /etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd system_u:object_r:initrc_exec_t:s0
- Now use the
restoreconcommand to apply this context mapping to the running system:restorecon -R -v /etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd
- Run the
lsto confirm the script has been labeled appropriately. Note that in the following output the script has been labeled asinitrc_exec_t:ls -lZ /etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd -rwxr-xr-x. root root system_u:object_r:initrc_exec_t:s0 /etc/rc.d/init.d/rsyncd - Launch
rsyncdvia the new script. Now that rsync has started from an init script that has been appropriately labeled, the process will start asrsync_t:# /etc/rc.d/init.d/rsync start Starting rsyncd: [ OK ] ps -eZ | grep rsync unconfined_u:system_r:rsync_t:s0 9794 ? 00:00:00 rsyncSELinux can now enforce its protection mechanisms over thersyncdaemon as it is now runing in thersync_tdomain. - Modify the
/etc/rsyncd.conffile and add theport = 10000line at the top of the file in the global configuration area (ie., before any file areas are defined). The new configuration file will look like:log file = /var/log/rsyncd.log pid file = /var/run/rsyncd.pid lock file = /var/run/rsync.lock port = 10000 [files] path = /srv/files comment = file area read only = false timeout = 300 - After launching rsync from the init script with this new setting, a denial similar to the following is logged by SELinux:
Jul 22 10:46:59 localhost setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing the rsync (rsync_t) from binding to port 10000. For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l c371ab34-639e-45ae-9e42-18855b5c2de8
- Run the
semanagecommand to add TCP port 10000 to SELinux policy inrsync_port_t:# semanage port -a -t rsync_port_t -p tcp 10000
- Now that TCP port 10000 has been added to SELinux policy for
rsync_port_t,rsyncdwill start and operate normally on this port:# /etc/rc.d/init.d/rsync start Starting rsyncd: [ OK ]
# netstat -lnp | grep 10000 tcp 0 0 0.0.0.0:10000 0.0.0.0:* LISTEN 9910/rsync public_content_t- This is a generic type used for the location of files (and the actual files) to be shared via
rsync. If a special directory is created to house files to be shared withrsync, the directory and its contents need to have this label applied to them. rsync_exec_t- This type is used for the
/usr/bin/rsyncsystem binary. rsync_log_t- This type is used for the
rsynclog file, located at/var/log/rsync.logby default. To change the location of the file rsync logs to, use the--log-file=FILEoption to thersynccommand at run-time. rsync_var_run_t- This type is used for the
rsyncdlock file, located at/var/run/rsyncd.lock. This lock file is used by thersyncserver to manage connection limits. allow_ftpd_use_nfs- When enabled, this Boolean allows
ftpdaccess to NFS mounts. allow_nfsd_anon_write- When enabled, this Boolean allows
nfsdto write to a public directory anonymously; such as to an area reserved for common files that otherwise has no special access restrictions. httpd_use_nfs- When enabled, this Boolean will allow
httpdto access files stored on a NFS filesystem. nfs_export_all_ro- Export any file or directory via NFS, allowing read-only permissions.
nfs_export_all_rw- Export any file or directory via NFS, allowing read and write permissions.
qemu_use_nfs- Allow qemu to use NFS file systems.
samba_share_nfs- When disabled, this Boolean prevents
smbdfrom having full access to NFS shares via Samba. Enabling this Boolean will allow Samba to share NFS file systems. use_nfs_home_dirs- Having this Boolean enabled adds support for NFS home directories.
virt_use_nfs- Allow virt to use NFS files.
xen_use_nfs- Allow xen to manage NFS files.
- el men?? d'arrencada, o
- la utilitat de configuraci?? de la BIOS
- Mentre s'est?? executant aquesta imatge autoarrencable, teniu el control, i no esteu limitats a un conjunt de captures de pantalla o opcions escollides per altres. Seleccioneu les tasques o aplicacions a explorar amb total llibertat.
- Podeu experimentar amb aquesta imatge autoarrencable sense malmetre el vostre actual entorn inform??tic, documents o escriptori. Hiberneu el vostre sistema operatiu actual, arrenqueu de nou amb la imatge autoarrencable i torneu a arrencar el sistema operatiu original quan acabeu. El vostre entorn anterior retorna sense canvis.
- Podeu utilitzar la imatge autoarrencable per avaluar si tot els vostres dispositius de maquinari s??n reconeguts i configurats correctament.
Ple reconeixement de maquinari
In some cases, the Live image not offer the full range of hardware support seeing in an installed Fedora system. You may be able to manually configure support in the Live image. If you are using the Live image from a CD or DVD, you must repeat these steps each time you use the Live image. - Podeu utilitzar la imatge autoarrencable per provar diferents entorns d'escriptori tals com GNOME, KDE, XFCE entre altres. Cap d'aquests canvis requereixen que reconfigureu la instal??laci?? existent del vostre ordinador.
- Live images on USB can include both a persistence overlay and a separate area for user data. The persistence overlay allows you to make changes to the Fedora environment and retain these changes across reboots. These changes can include system software updates, configuration changes, and new packages you choose to install. The separate user data area allows you to reinstall the Live image with a newer version of Fedora later, while retaining your documents, media files, and other important information.
- While using this Live image on CD or DVD, your computer may be much slower to respond or require more time to complete tasks than with a system installed to hard disk. CD and DVD discs provide data to the computer at a much slower rate than hard disks. Less of your computer's system memory is available for loading and running applications. Running the Live image from RAM trades higher memory usage for faster response times.
- Per adaptar-se a les limitacions d'espai, s'inclouen menys aplicacions de les incloses en una instal??laci?? completa de Fedora. Les vostres aplicacions preferides poden no estar presents en la imatge autoarrencable, tot i que poden estar presents i funcionar molt b?? en una instal??laci?? completa de Fedora.
Live USB persistence
Live USB images with persistence allow you to install new applications on your Fedora system. There is a limit to the space available for new applications. If you decide to make many changes to the software installed, you may wish to install Fedora to a hard disk first. - At this time, you cannot permanently install new applications in the Live image on CD or DVD. To try other applications, or newer versions of existing applications, you must either use a Live USB image with persistence, or install Fedora on your computer. You may be able to temporarily install or update applications, however, if you have sufficient system memory. Most systems require more than 512 MB RAM for installations or updates to succeed. These changes will be lost when you shut down the Live image.
- Changes may also evaporate if your system's memory usage forces the system to reread the original software or settings from the Live image on CD or DVD. This behavior is peculiar to a Live CD or DVD image and does not occur in a full installation of Fedora.
- disquets
- unitats USB
- particions de disc
- una unitat per a enregistrar CD o DVD
- un disc dur amb suficient espai lliure
Herzieningsgeschiedenis
+
+
| Wijzigingen | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Herziening 0.5.4 | Wed Jul 22 2009 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.5.3 | Thu Jun 04 2009 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.5.2 | Fri Jan 09 2009 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.5.1 | Sun Aug 31 2008 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.5 | Friday Apr 18 2008 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.4.1 | Wed Mar 19 2008 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.4 | Mon Mar 03 2008 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.9.2 | Mon Feb 18 2008 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.9.1 | Sun Dec 23 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.9 | Wed Nov 14 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.8.2 | Fri Sep 28 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.8.1 | Tue Sep 04 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.8 | Thu Aug 23 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.7.5 | Sun Jul 29 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.7.4 | Sat Jul 28 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.7.3 | Fri Jul 06 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.7.2 | Tue May 29 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.7.1 | Tue Apr 03 2007 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.7 | Sat Oct 14 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.6 | Wed Sep 20 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.5 | Mon Aug 14 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.4 | Thu Aug 10 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.3 | Tue Aug 06 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.2 | Mon Jul 03 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3.1 | Sun May 28 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.3 | Sat May 27 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.2.2.2 | Mon Feb 13 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.2.2.1 | Thu Feb 02 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.2.2 | Wed Feb 01 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.2.1 | Mon Jan 30 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.2 | Wed Jan 25 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.1 | Fri Jan 20 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
| Herziening 0.0.1 | Wed Jan 18 2006 | ||||
+
| |||||
Fedora 11
Snelgids Vertalen
Snelstartgids voor het maken van vertalingen voor het Fedora Project
+ +
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
Bericht
+ Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
+
+ Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
+
+ Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
+
+ All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
+
+ Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
+
Samenvatting
Deze gids is een snelle, eenvoudige, stap-voor-stap instructie voor
+het vertalen van software en documenten voor het Fedora Project.
1. Introductie
+ Deze gids is een snelle, simpele, stap-voor-stap handleiding tot het vertalen van Fedora Project software en documentatie. Indien je meer wilt weten over het proces van vertalen, bekijk dan de Vertalings-gids of de handleiding van het specifieke vertalingshulpmiddel.
+
+ Meer informatie kun je vinden in de FAQ, http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/L10N/FAQ.
+
1.1. We hebben terugkoppeling nodig!
+ Indien u een typografische fout in deze handleiding vindt, of u weet een manier om deze handleiding te verbeteren, zouden wij dat graag van u horen! Meldt u alstublieft fouten in de uitgave Fedora Documentation via Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/.
+
+ Indien u fouten meldt, vergeet dan alstublieft niet het kenmerk: translation-quick-start-guide te vermelden.
+
+ Indien u suggesties hebt om de documentatie te verbeteren, probeer dan zo duidelijk mogelijk deze suggesties te omschrijven. Indien u fouten hebt ontdekt, vermeldt dan alstublieft het sectienummer en wat omringende tekst, opdat we de fout makkelijker kunnen vinden.
+
2.4. Een Account Aanvragen
2.9. Gefeliciteerd
+ Leun achterover en geniet van wat je bereikt hebt. Je bent nu een volledig erkend lid van de Fedora gemeenschap, in staat om digitaal documenten en emails te tekenen, bijdrages op te sturen, tekst op de wiki te publiceren, fouten in te sturen, de discussies op onze groepen te volgen en om je bij andere Fedora teams aan te sluiten.
+
2.8. Maak een Bugzilla account aan
+ Bezoek http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/createaccount.cgi om een Bugzilla account aan te maken.
+
2.6. Stel je voor
2.7. Neem deel aan de cvsl10n Groep
Waarschuwing
+ De resterende stappen helpen je om je toegang te testen en geven je rechten op alle Fedora infrastructuur die je in de toekomst nodig kunt hebben. Taal maintainers en mensen die een nieuwe taal opstarten moeten ze opvolgen. Hoewel de stappen optioneel zijn voor vertalers, wordt iedereen aangemoedigd om ze op te volgen.
+
2.3. Maak een GPG sleutel aan
2.2. Maak een SSH sleutel
+ Als je al een bestaande SSH sleutel hebt, dan kan je die gebruiken voor je Fedora werk. In dat geval, ga naar Stap 2 in de volgende procedure. Als je nog geen SSH sleutel hebt, begin met de eerste stap hieronder:
+
2.5. De CLA Ondertekenen
+ Je moet de Contibutors License Agreement, of CLA, volledig maken.
+
2. Accounts en Aanmeldingen
+ Om een Fedora Vertaler te worden, moet je intekenen voor accounts en aanmeldingen zoals beschreven in dit hoofdstuk. Als je vragen hebt, stuur ze naar de fedora-trans-list mailing lijst, of vraag hulp via Internet Relay Chat, of IRC, at
irc.freenode.org op kanaal #fedora-l10n.
+ 2.1. Abonneren op de Mailing lijst
4.2. Wat te Vertalen
+ De belangrijkste documentatie voor elke release van Fedora zijn de volgende:
+
4. Documentatie vertalen
Sommige Fedora Documentatie is verhuisd
+ De huidige Fedora Documentatie wordt nu onderhouden is het Fedora Hosted systeem als
git repositories. Dit omvat de laatste versies van de algemene documentatie bouw gereedschappen. Je hoeft git niet te installeren om deze documentatie te vertalen. In plaats daarvan gebruik je Transiflex, zoals in de vorige secties beschreven, om deze documentatie te vertalen.
+ 4.1. Het maken van gemeenschappelijke bestanden.
+ Indien je de allereerste vertaling voor een locale aan het maken bent, moet je eerst de gemeenschappelijke bestanden vertalen die in alle documenten voor jouw localegebruikt worden. De gemeenschappelijke bestanden zitten in de Fedora Hosted repositorie voor het fedora-doc-utils pakket.
+
Voorbeeld Locale is pt_BR
+ De volgende voorbeelden gebruiken de locale code
pt_BR. Vervang deze code door jouw locale code in de volgende commando's.
+ 
3.4. Een Nieuw .po Bestand Toevoegen
+ Als er geen
.po bestand is voor je taal dan moet je die toevoegen.
+
3.3. Committen van projecten
+ Als je klaar bent met het vertalen, commit je het bestand met dezelfde interface.
+
3.2. Ophalen en vertalen van projecten
+ Nu je een map structuur hebt aangemaakt, kun je een bestand downloaden om te vertalen. Je moet misschien met andere vertalers in je taal team overleggen om conflicten te voorkomen. Als je niet zeker bent, neem dan contact op met je taal coordinator.
+
Belangrijk
+ Indien er een fout boodschap verschijnt, herstel deze voor het committen.
+
3.5. Testen van je vertaling
+ Om je vertaling te testen als een deel van de software, volg dan de volgende stappen:
+
+ Het programma waaraan het vertaalde pakket verbonden is, zal starten met de vertaalde teksten.
+
3. Software vertalen
+ Het vertaalbare gedeelte van een software pakket is beschikbaar in een of meerdere
po bestanden. Deze kunnen onderhouden worden in een van een aantal versie-control-systemen (VCSs) afhankelijk van het project, zoals CVS, Subversion, Mercurial en git. Ze kunnen gehuisvest zijn op of fedorahosted.org, of andere systemen.
+
+ Dit hoofdstuk legt uit hoe modules die gehuisvest zijn op
fedorahosted.org vertaald moeten worden. Vertalers werken met een interface voor het verkrijgen in opsturen van po bestanden. Voordat je begint, moet je eerst de mappen gereed maken die je po bestanden gaan bevatten.
+ 3.1. Bestand structuur
+ Om te ontdekken welke projecten vertaalbaar zijn, bezoek de project lijst op http://translate.fedoraproject.org/projects.
+
+ Voordat je enig bestand ophaalt, maak de structuur gereed om deze bestanden in op te slaan. De onderstaand beschreven structuur is een voorbeeld, jouw structuur kan er anders uitzien. Bijvoorbeeld, als je het
comps project wilt ophalen om te vertalen, maak de volgende mappen:
+ mkdir -p ~/myproject/comps/
+
+ Om later met een ander project te werken, maak je een map met de project naam in de hoofd map zoals
~/myproject/system-config-printer/.
+ Chapter??14.??Postfix
From the Postfix project page:
"What is Postfix? It is Wietse Venema's mailer that started life at IBM research as an alternative to the widely-used Sendmail program. Postfix attempts to be fast, easy to administer, and secure. The outside has a definite Sendmail-ish flavor, but the inside is completely different."
In Fedora, the postfix package provides postfix. Run
rpm -q postfix to see if the postfix package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install postfix
14.1.??Postfix and SELinux
When Postfix is enabled, it runs confined by default. Confined processes run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined processes. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited. The following example demonstrates the Postfix and related processes running in their own domain. This example assumes the postfix package is installed and that the Postfix service has been started:
14.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following types are used with
Postfix. Different types all you to configure flexible access:
Note
To see the full list of files and their types for Postfix, run the following command:
$ grep postfix /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts
14.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running Postfix:
14.4.??Configuration Examples
14.4.1.??SpamAssassin and Postfix
From the SpamAssassin project page:
"Open Source mail filter, written in Perl, to identify spam using a wide range of heuristic tests on mail headers and body text. Free software."
When using Fedora, the spamassassin package provides SpamAssassin. Run
rpm -q spamassassin to see if the spamassassin package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install spamassassin
SpamAssassin operates in tandom with a mailer such as Postfix to provide spam-filtering capabilities. In order for SpamAssassin to effectively intercept, analyze and filter mail, it must listen on a network interface. The default port for SpamAssassin is TCP/783, however this can be changed. The following example provides a real-world demonstration of how SELinux complements SpamAssassin by only allowing it access to a certain port by default. This example will then demonstrate how to change the port and have SpamAssassin operate on a non-default port.
Note that this is an example only and demonstrates how SELinux can affect a simple configuration of SpamAssassin. Comprehensive documentation of SpamAssassin is beyond the scope of this document. Refer to the official SpamAssassin documentation for further details. This example assumes the spamassassin is installed, that any firewall has been configured to allow access on the ports in use, that the SELinux targeted policy is used, and that SELinux is running in enforcing mode:
Running SpamAssassin on a non-default port
Chapter??15.??References
The following references are pointers to additional information that is relevant to SELinux but beyond the scope of this guide. Note that due to the rapid development of SELinux, some of this material may only apply to specific releases of Fedora.
Books
Tutorials and Help
General Information
Mailing Lists
Community
Chapter??8.??Berkeley Internet Name Domain
BIND performs name resolution services via the
named daemon. BIND lets users locate computer resources and services by name instead of numerical addresses.
In Fedora, the bind package provides a DNS server. Run
rpm -q bind to see if the bind package is installed. If it is not installed and you want to use BIND, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install bind
8.1.??BIND and SELinux
The default permissions on the
/var/named/slaves,/var/named/dynamic and /var/named/data directories allow zone files to be updated via zone transfers and dynamic DNS updates. Files in /var/named are labeled with the name_zone_t type, which is used for master zone files.
For a slave server, configure
/etc/named.conf to place slave zones in /var/named/slaves. The following is an example of a domain entry in /etc/named.conf for a slave DNS server that stores the zone file for testdomain.com in /var/named/slaves:
zone "testdomain.com" {
type slave;
masters { IP-address; };
file "/var/named/slaves/db.testdomain.com";
};
If a zone file is labeled
name_zone_t, the named_write_master_zones Boolean must be enabled to allow zone transfers and dynamic DNS to update the zone file. Also, the mode of the parent directory has to be changed to allow the named user or group read, write and execue access.
If zone files in
/var/named/ are labeled with name_cache_t type, a file system relabel or running restorecon -R /var/ will change their type to named_zone_t.
<
img src="Common_Content/images/image_right.png" alt="Documentation Site" />
Chapter??9.??Concurrent Versioning System
The Concurrent Versioning System (CVS) is a free revision-control system. It is used to monitor and keep track of modifications to a central set of files which are usually accessed by several different users. It is commonly used by programmers to manage a source code repository and is widely used by open source programmers.
In Fedora, the cvs package provides CVS. Run
rpm -q cvs to see if the cvs package is installed. If it is not installed and you want to use CVS, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install cvs
9.1.??CVS and SELinux
The
cvs daemon runs as cvs_t. By default in Fedora, CVS is only allowed to read and write certain directories. The label cvs_data_t defines which areas the cvs daemon has read and write access to. When using CVS with SELinux, assigning the correct label is essential for clients to have full access to the area reserved for CVS data.
Chapter??6.??File Transfer Protocol
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is one of the oldest and most commonly used protocols found on the Internet today. Its purpose is to reliably transfer files between computer hosts on a network without requiring the user to log directly into the remote host or have knowledge of how to use the remote system. It allows users to access files on remote systems using a standard set of simple commands.[7]
The Very Secure FTP Daemon (
vsftpd) is designed from the ground up to be fast, stable, and, most importantly, secure. Its ability to handle large numbers of connections efficiently and securely is why vsftpd is the only stand-alone FTP distributed with Red Hat Enterprise Linux.[8]
In Fedora, the vsftpd package provides the Very Secure FTP daemon. Run
rpm -q vsftpd to see if vsftpd is installed:
$ rpm -q vsftpd
If you want an FTP server and the vsftpd package is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install vsftpd
6.1.??FTP and SELinux
When running SELinux, the FTP server,
vsftpd, runs confined by default. SELinux policy defines how vsftpd interacts with files, processes, and with the system in general. For example, when an authenticated user logs in via FTP, they can not read from or write to files in their home directories: SELinux prevents vsftpd from accessing user home directories by default. Also, by default, vsftpd does not have access to NFS or CIFS file systems, and anonymous users do not have write access, even if such write access is configured in /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf. Booleans can be turned on to allow the previously mentioned access.
The following example demonstrates an authenticated user logging in, and an SELinux denial when trying to view files in their home directory:
[7] The first paragraph of "Chapter 23. FTP" of the Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 Deployment Guide: http://www.redhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/5/html/Deployment_Guide/ch-ftp.html. Copyright ?? 2007 Red Hat, Inc.
[8] The first paragraph of the "23.2.1. vsftpd" section of the Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 Deployment Guide: http://www.redhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/5/html/Deployment_Guide/s1-ftp-servers.html#s2-ftp-servers-vsftpd. Copyright ?? 2007 Red Hat, Inc.
Chapter??2.??Introduction
Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) refers to files, such as directories and devices, as objects. Processes, such as a user running a command or the Mozilla?? Firefox?? application, are referred to as subjects. Most operating systems use a Discretionary Access Control (DAC) system that controls how subjects interact with objects, and how subjects interact with each other. On operating systems using DAC, users control the permissions of files (objects) that they own. For example, on Linux?? operating systems, users could make their home directories world-readable, inadvertently giving users and processes (subjects) access to potentially sensitive information.
DAC mechanisms are fundamentally inadequate for strong system security. DAC access decisions are only based on user identity and ownership, ignoring other security-relevant information such as the role of the user, the function and trustworthiness of the program, and the sensitivity and integrity of the data. Each user has complete discretion over their files, making it impossible to enforce a system-wide security policy. Furthermore, every program run by a user inherits all of the permissions granted to the user and is free to change access to the user's files, so no protection is provided against malicious software. Many system services and privileged programs must run with coarse-grained privileges that far exceed their requirements, so that a flaw in any one of these programs can be exploited to obtain complete system access.[1]
The following is an example of permissions used on Linux operating systems that do not run Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux). The permissions in these examples may differ from your system. Use the
ls -l command to view file permissions:
$ ls -l file1 -rwxrw-r-- 1 user1 group1 0 2009-03-16 14:07 file1
The first three permission bits,
rwx, control the access the Linux user1 user (in this case, the owner) has to file1. The next three permission bits, rw-, control the access the Linux group1 group has to file1. The last three permission bits, r--, control the access everyone else has to file1, which includes all users and processes.
Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) adds Mandatory Access Control (MAC) to the Linux kernel, and is enabled by default in Fedora. A general purpose MAC architecture needs the ability to enforce an administratively-set security policy over all processes and files in the system, basing decisions on labels containing a variety of security-relevant information. When properly implemented, it enables a system to adequately defend itself and offers critical support for application security by protecting against the tampering with, and bypassing of, secured applications. MAC provides strong separation of applications that permits the safe execution of untrustworthy applications. Its ability to limit the privileges associated with executing processes limits the scope of potential damage that can result from the exploitation of vulnerabilities in applications and system services. MAC enables information to be protected from legitimate users with limited authorization as well as from au
thorized users who have unwittingly executed malicious applications.[2]
The following is an example of the labels containing security-relevant information that are used on processes, Linux users, and files, on Linux operating systems that run SELinux. This information is called the SELinux context, and is viewed using the
ls -Z command:
$ ls -Z file1 -rwxrw-r-- user1 group1 unconfined_u:object_r:user_home_t:s0 file1
In this example, SELinux provides a user (
unconfined_u), a role (object_r), a type (user_home_t), and a level (s0). This information is used to make access control decisions. This example also displays the DAC rules, which are shown in the SELinux context via the ls -Z command. SELinux policy rules are checked after DAC rules. SELinux policy rules are not used if DAC rules deny access first.
[1] "Integrating Flexible Support for Security Policies into the Linux Operating System", by Peter Loscocco and Stephen Smalley. This paper was originally prepared for the National Security Agency and is, consequently, in the public domain. Refer to the original paper for details and the document as it was first released. Any edits and changes were done by Murray McAllister.
[2] "Meeting Critical Security Objectives with Security-Enhanced Linux", by Peter Loscocco and Stephen Smalley. This paper was originally prepared for the National Security Agency and is, consequently, in the public domain. Refer to the original paper for details and the document as it was first released. Any edits and changes were done by Murray McAllister.
Chapter??11.??MySQL
From the MySQL project page:
"The MySQL?? database has become the world's most popular open source database because of its consistent fast performance, high reliability and ease of use. It's used on every continent -- Yes, even Antarctica! -- by individual Web developers as well as many of the world's largest and fastest-growing organizations to save time and money powering their high-volume Web sites, business-critical systems and packaged software -- including industry leaders such as Yahoo!, Alcatel-Lucent, Google, Nokia, YouTube, and Zappos.com."
In Fedora, the mysql-server package provides MySQL. Run
rpm -q mysql-server to see if the mysql-server package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install mysql-server
11.1.??MySQL and SELinux
When MySQL is enabled, it runs confined by default. Confined processes run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined processes. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited. The following example demonstrates the MySQL processes running in their own domain. This example assumes the mysql package is installed:
Chapter??7.??Network File System
From the Red Hat Linux Reference Guide:
NFS (Network File System) allows hosts to mount partitions on a remote system and use them as though they are local file systems. This allows the system administrator to store resources in a central location on the network, providing authorized users continuous access to them.
In Fedora, the nfs-utils package is required for full NFS support. Run
rpm -q nfs-utils to see if the nfs-utils is installed. If it is not installed and you want to use NFS, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install nfs-utils
7.1.??NFS and SELinux
When running SELinux, the
NFS daemons are confined by default. SELinux policy does not allow NFS to share files by default. If you want to share NFS partitions, this can be configured via the nfs_export_all_ro and nfs_export_all_rw Booleans, as described below. These Booleans are however not required when files to be shared are labeled with the public_content_t or public_content_rw_t types. NFS can share files labeled with these types even if the nfs_export_all_ro and nfs_export_all_rw Booleans are off.
Chapter??14.??Postfix
From the Postfix project page:
"What is Postfix? It is Wietse Venema's mailer that started life at IBM research as an alternative to the widely-used Sendmail program. Postfix attempts to be fast, easy to administer, and secure. The outside has a definite Sendmail-ish flavor, but the inside is completely different."
In Fedora, the postfix package provides postfix. Run
rpm -q postfix to see if the postfix package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install postfix
14.1.??Postfix and SELinux
When Postfix is enabled, it runs confined by default. Confined processes run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined processes. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited. The following example demonstrates the Postfix and related processes running in their own domain. This example assumes the postfix package is installed and that the Postfix service has been started:
Chapter??12.??PostgreSQL
From the PostgreSQL project page:
"PostgreSQL is a powerful, open source object-relational database system. It has more than 15 years of active development and a proven architecture that has earned it a strong reputation for reliability, data integrity, and correctness."
In Fedora, the postgresql-server package provides PostgreSQL. Run
rpm -q postgresql-server to see if the postgresql-server package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install postgresql-server
12.1.??PostgreSQL and SELinux
When PostgreSQL is enabled, it runs confined by default. Confined processes run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined processes. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited. The following example demonstrates the PostgreSQL processes running in their own domain. This example assumes the postgresql-server package is installed:
Chapter??15.??References
The following references are pointers to additional information that is relevant to SELinux but beyond the scope of this guide. Note that due to the rapid development of SELinux, some of this material may only apply to specific releases of Fedora.
Books
Tutorials and Help
General Information
Mailing Lists
Community
Chapter??5.??Samba
From the Samba website:
"Samba is an Open Source/Free Software suite that has, since 1992, provided file and print services to all manner of SMB/CIFS clients, including the numerous versions of Microsoft Windows operating systems. Samba is freely available under the GNU General Public License.".[6]
In Fedora, the samba package provides the Samba server. Run
rpm -q samba to see if the samba package is installed. If it is not installed and you want to use Samba, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install samba
5.1.??Samba and SELinux
When SELinux is enabled, the Samba server (
smbd) runs confined by default. Confined services run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined services. The following example demonstrates the smbd process running in its own domain. This example assumes the samba package is installed:
Files must be labeled correctly to allow
smbd to access and share them. For example, smbd can read and write to files labeled with the samba_share_t type, but by default, can not access files labeled with the httpd_sys_content_t type, which is intended for use by the Apache HTTP Server. Booleans must be turned on to allow certain behavior, such as allowing home directories and NFS file systems to be exported through Samba, as well as to allow Samba to act as a domain controller.
Chapter??10.??Squid Caching Proxy
From the Squid Caching Proxy project page:
"Squid is a caching proxy for the Web supporting HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, and more. It reduces bandwidth and improves response times by caching and reusing frequently-requested web pages. Squid has extensive access controls and makes a great server accelerator."
In Fedora, the squid package provides the Squid Caching Proxy. Run
rpm -q squid to see if the squid package is installed. If it is not installed and you want to use squid, run the following command as the root user to install it:
# yum install squid
10.1.??Squid Caching Proxy and SELinux
When SELinux is enabled, squid runs confined by default. Confined processes run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined processes. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited. The following example demonstrates the squid processes running in their own domain. This example assumes the squid package is installed:
SELinux policy defines how processes running in confined domains, such as squid_t, interact with files, other processes, and the system in general. Files must be labeled correctly to allow squid access to them.
When
/etc/squid/squid.conf is configured so squid listens on a port other than the default TCP ports 3128, 3401 or 4827, the semanage port command must be used to add the required port number to the SELinux policy configuration. The following example demonstrates configuring squid to listen on a port that is not initially defined in SELinux policy configuration for squid, and, as a consequence, squid failing to start. This example also demonstrates how to then configure the SELinux system to allow squid to successfully listen on a non-standard port that is not already defined in the policy. This example assumes the squid package is installed. Run each command in the example as the root user:
Chapter??3.??Targeted policy
Targeted policy is the default SELinux policy used in Fedora. When using targeted policy, processes that are targeted run in a confined domain, and processes that are not targeted run in an unconfined domain. For example, by default, logged in users run in the
unconfined_t domain, and system processes started by init run in the initrc_t domain - both of these domains are unconfined.
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. This can be achieved via Booleans that allow parts of SELinux policy to be changed at runtime, without any knowledge of SELinux policy writing. This allows changes, such as allowing services access to NFS file systems, without reloading or recompiling SELinux policy. Boolean configuration is discussed later.
Other changes, such as using non-default directories to store files for services, and changing services to run on non-default port numbers, require policy configuration to be updated via tools such as
semanage. This is discussed later using detailed configuration examples.
3.1.??Type Enforcement
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
Chapter??4.??The Apache HTTP Server
From the Apache HTTP Server Project page:
"The Apache HTTP Server Project is an effort to develop and maintain an open-source HTTP server for modern operating systems including UNIX and Windows NT. The goal of this project is to provide a secure, efficient and extensible server that provides HTTP services in sync with the current HTTP standards".[5]
In Fedora, the httpd package provides the Apache HTTP Server. Run
rpm -q httpd to see if the httpd package is installed. If it is not installed and you want to use the Apache HTTP Server, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install httpd
4.1.??The Apache HTTP Server and SELinux
When SELinux is enabled, the Apache HTTP Server (
httpd) runs confined by default. Confined processes run in their own domains, and are separated from other confined processes. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited. The following example demonstrates the httpd processes running in their own domain. This example assumes the httpd package is installed:
SELinux policy defines how processes running in confined domains, such as
httpd_t, interact with files, other processes, and the system in general. Files must be labeled correctly to allow httpd access to them. For example, httpd can read files labeled with the httpd_sys_content_t type, but can not write to them, even if Linux permissions allow write access. Booleans must be turned on to allow certain behavior, such as allowing scripts network access, allowing httpd access to NFS and CIFS file systems, and httpd being allowed to execute Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts.
When
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf is configured so httpd listens on a port other than TCP ports 80, 443, 488, 8008, 8009, or 8443, the semanage port command must be used to add the new port number to SELinux policy configuration. The following example demonstrates configuring httpd to listen on a port that is not defined in SELinux policy configuration for httpd, and, as a consequence, httpd failing to start. This example also demonstrates how to then configure the SELinux system to allow httpd to successfully listen on a non-standard port that is not already defined in the policy. This example assumes the httpd package is installed. Run each command in the example as the root user:
[5] From the "The Number One HTTP Server On The Internet" section of the Apache HTTP Server Project page: http://httpd.apache.org/. Copyright ?? 2009 The Apache Software Foundation. Accessed 19 January 2009.
Chapter??1.??Trademark Information
Linux?? is the registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the U.S. and other countries.
UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group.
Type Enforcement is a trademark of Secure Computing, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of McAfee, Inc., registered in the U.S. and in other countries. Neither McAfee nor Secure Computing, LLC, has consented to the use or reference to this trademark by the author outside of this guide.
Apache is a trademark of The Apache Software Foundation.
MySQL is a registered trademark of Sun Microsystems in the United States and other countries.
Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and other countries.
Other products mentioned may be trademarks of their respective corporations.
This guide includes material drawn from the Fedora 10 Security-Enhanced Linux User Guide. The Fedora 10 Security-Enhanced Linux User Guide was written by Murray McAllister and Daniel Walsh. Technical editors include Dominick Grift, Eric Paris, and James Morris. Refer to the original document for details and the document as it was first released: http://docs.fedoraproject.org/selinux-user-guide/. Copyright ?? 2008 Red Hat, Inc.
Chapter??13.??rsync
From the Rsync project page:
"rsync is an open source utility that provides fast incremental file transfer."
When using Fedora, the rsync package provides rsync. Run
rpm -q rsync to see if the rsync package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install rsync
13.1.??rsync and SELinux
From the Fedora 11 SELinux rsync_selinux(8) man page: "SELinux requires files to have an extended attribute to define the file type. Policy governs the access daemons have to these files. If you want to share files using the rsync daemon, you must label the files and directories public_content_t."
Like most services, correct labeling is required for SELinux to perform its protection mechanisms over
rsync.
SELinux 3.6.12
Managing Confined Services
Edition 1.0
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc.
Legal Notice
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Abstract
The Managing Confined Services guide is designed to assist advanced
users and administrators when using and configuring SELinux. It is
focused on Fedora Linux and describes the components of SELinux as
they pertain to services an advanced user or administrator might
need to configure. Also included are real-world examples of
configuring these services and demonstrations of how SELinux
complements their operation.
2.??We Need Feedback!
If you find a typographical error in this manual, or if you have thought of a way to make this manual better, we would love to hear from you! Please submit a report in Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/
against the product SELinux.
When submitting a bug report, be sure to mention the manual's identifier: Managing_Confined_Services
If you have a suggestion for improving the documentation, try to be as specific as possible when describing it. If you have found an error, please include the section number and some of the surrounding text so we can find it easily.
Preface
1.??Document Conventions
This manual uses several conventions to highlight certain words and phrases and draw attention to specific pieces of information.
In PDF and paper editions, this manual uses typefaces drawn from the Liberation Fonts set. The Liberation Fonts set is also used in HTML editions if the set is installed on your system. If not, alternative but equivalent typefaces are displayed. Note: Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and later includes the Liberation Fonts set by default.
1.1.??Typographic Conventions
Four typographic conventions are used to call attention to specific words and phrases. These conventions, and the circumstances they apply to, are as follows.
Mono-spaced Bold
Used to highlight system input, including shell commands, file names and paths. Also used to highlight key caps and key-combinations. For example:
To see the contents of the filemy_next_bestselling_novelin your current working directory, enter thecat my_next_bestselling_novelcommand at the shell prompt and press Enter to execute the command.
The above includes a file name, a shell command and a key cap, all presented in Mono-spaced Bold and all distinguishable thanks to context.
Key-combinations can be distinguished from key caps by the hyphen connecting each part of a key-combination. For example:
Press Enter to execute the command.Press Ctrl+Alt+F1 to switch to the first virtual terminal. Press Ctrl+Alt+F7 to return to your X-Windows session.
The first sentence highlights the particular key cap to press. The second highlights two sets of three key caps, each set pressed simultaneously.
If source code is discussed, class names, methods, functions, variable names and returned values mentioned within a paragraph will be presented as above, in
Mono-spaced Bold. For example:
File-related classes includefilesystemfor file systems,filefor files, anddirfor directories. Each class has its own associated set of permissions.
Proportional Bold
This denotes words or phrases encountered on a system, including application names; dialogue box text; labelled buttons; check-box and radio button labels; menu titles and sub-menu titles. For example:
Choose from the main menu bar to launch Mouse Preferences. In the Buttons tab, click the Left-handed mouse check box and click to switch the primary mouse button from the left to the right (making the mouse suitable for use in the left hand).To insert a special character into a gedit file, choose from the main menu bar. Next, choose from the Character Map menu bar, type the name of the character in the Search field and click . The character you sought will be highlighted in the Character Table. Double-click this highlighted character to place it in the Text to copy field and then click the button. Now switch back to your document and choose from the < span class="application">gedit menu bar.
The above text includes application names; system-wide menu names and items; application-specific menu names; and buttons and text found within a GUI interface, all presented in Proportional Bold and all distinguishable by context.
Note the shorthand used to indicate traversal through a menu and its sub-menus. This is to avoid the difficult-to-follow 'Select from the sub-menu in the menu of the main menu bar' approach.
Mono-spaced Bold ItalicProportional Bold Italic
Whether Mono-spaced Bold or Proportional Bold, the addition of Italics indicates replaceable or variable text. Italics denotes text you do not input literally or displayed text that changes depending on circumstance. For example:
To connect to a remote machine using ssh, typesshat a shell prompt. If the remote machine isusername@domain.nameexample.comand your username on that machine is john, typessh john at example.com.Themount -o remountcommand remounts the named file system. For example, to remount thefile-system/homefile system, the command ismount -o remount /home.To see the version of a currently installed package, use therpm -qcommand. It will return a result as follows:package.package-version-release
Note the words in bold italics above ??? username, domain.name, file-system, package, version and release. Each word is a placeholder, either for text you enter when issuing a command or for text displayed by the system.
Aside from standard usage for presenting the title of a work, italics denotes the first use of a new and important term. For example:
When the Apache HTTP Server accepts requests, it dispatches child processes or threads to handle them. This group of child processes or threads is known as a server-pool. Under Apache HTTP Server 2.0, the responsibility for creating and maintaining these server-pools has been abstracted to a group of modules called Multi-Processing Modules (MPMs). Unlike other modules, only one module from the MPM group can be loaded by the Apache HTTP Server.
1.2.??Pull-quote Conventions
Two, commonly multi-line, data types are set off visually from the surrounding text.
Output sent to a terminal is set in
Mono-spaced Roman and presented thus:
books Desktop documentation drafts mss photos stuff svn books_tests Desktop1 downloads images notes scripts svgs
Source-code listings are also set in
Mono-spaced Roman but are presented and highlighted as follows:
package org.jboss.book.jca.ex1;
import javax.naming.InitialContext;
public class ExClient
{
public static void main(String args[])
throws Exception
{
InitialContext iniCtx = new InitialContext();
Object ref = iniCtx.lookup("EchoBean");
EchoHome home = (EchoHome) ref;
Echo echo = home.create();
System.out.println("Created Echo");
System.out.println("Echo.echo('Hello') = " + echo.echo("Hello"));
}
}
1.3.??Notes and Warnings
Finally, we use three visual styles to draw attention to information that might otherwise be overlooked.
Note
A note is a tip or shortcut or alternative approach to the task at hand. Ignoring a note should have no negative consequences, but you might miss out on a trick that makes your life easier.
Important
Important boxes detail things that are easily missed: configuration changes that only apply to the current session, or services that need restarting before an update will apply. Ignoring Important boxes won't cause data loss but may cause irritation and frustration.
Warning
A Warning should not be ignored. Ignoring warnings will most likely cause data loss.
8.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Booleans allow you to tell SELinux how you are running NFS:
8.4.??Configuration Examples
8.4.1.??Dynamic DNS
BIND allows hosts to update their records in DNS and zone files dynamically. This is used when a host computer's IP address changes frequently and the DNS record requires real-time modification.
Use the
/var/named/dynamic directory for zone files you want updated via dynamic DNS. Files created in or copied into /var/named/dynamic inherit Linux permissions that allow named to write to them. As such files are labeled with the named_cache_t type, SELinux allows named to write to them.
If a zone file in
/var/named/dynamic is labeled with the named_zone_t type, dynamic DNS updates may not be successful for a certain period of time as the update needs to be written to a journal first before being merged. If the zone file is labeled with the named_zone_t type when the journal attempts to be merged, an error such as the following is logged to /var/log/messages:
named[PID]: dumping master file: rename: /var/named/dynamic/zone-name: permission denied
Also, the following SELinux denial is logged to
/var/log/messages:
setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing named (named_t) "unlink" to zone-name (named_zone_t)
To resolve this labeling issue, run the
restorecon -R -v /var/named/dynamic command as the Linux root user.
8.2.??Types
The following types are used with BIND. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
9.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running CVS:
9.4.2.??Server setup
Note
Steps 1-9 should be performed on the CVS server,
cvs-srv.
9.4.??Configuration Examples
9.4.1.??Setting up CVS
This example describes a simple CVS setup and an SELinux configuration which allows remote access. Two hosts are used in this example; a CVS server with a hostname of
cvs-srv with an IP address of 192.168.1.1 and a client with a hostname of cvs-client and an IP address of 192.168.1.100. Both hosts are on the same subnet (192.168.1.0/24). This is an example only and assumes that the cvs and xinetd packages are installed, that the SELinux targeted policy is used, and that SELinux is running in enforced mode.
This example will show that even with full DAC permissions, SELinux can still enforce policy rules based on file labels and only allow access to certain areas that have been specifically labeled for access by CVS.
9.2.??Types
The following types are used with CVS. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
4.4.4.??Changing port numbers
Depending on policy configuration, services may only be allowed to run on certain port numbers. Attempting to change the port a service runs on without changing policy may result in the service failing to start. Run
semanage port -l | grep -w "http_port_t" as the root user to list the ports SELinux allows httpd to listen on:
# semanage port -l | grep -w http_port_t http_port_t tcp 80, 443, 488, 8008, 8009, 8443
By default, SELinux allows
http to listen on TCP ports 80, 443, 488, 8008, 8009, or 8443. If /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf is configured so that httpd listens on any port not listed for http_port_t, httpd fails to start.
To configure
httpd to run on a port other than TCP ports 80, 443, 488, 8008, 8009, or 8443:
If you no longer run
httpd on port 12345, run semanage port -d -t http_port_t -p tcp 12345 as the root user to remove the port from policy configuration.
4.4.2.??Sharing NFS and CIFS file systems
By default, NFS mounts on the client side are labeled with a default context defined by policy for NFS file systems. In common policies, this default context uses the
nfs_t type. Also, by default, Samba shares mounted on the client side are labeled with a default context defined by policy. In common policies, this default context uses the cifs_t type.
Depending on policy configuration, services may not be able to read files labeled with the
nfs_t or cifs_t types. This may prevent file systems labeled with these types from being mounted and then read or exported by other services. Booleans can be turned on or off to control which services are allowed to access the nfs_t and cifs_t types.
Turn the
httpd_use_nfs Boolean on to allow httpd to access and share NFS file systems (labeled with the nfs_t type. Run the setsebool command as the root user to turn the Boolean on:
setsebool -P httpd_use_nfs on
Turn the
httpd_use_cifs Boolean on to allow httpd to access and share CIFS file systems (labeled with the cifs_t type. Run the setsebool command as the root user to turn the Boolean on:
setsebool -P httpd_use_cifs on
Note
Do not use the
-P option if you do not want setsebool changes to persist across reboots.
<
a class="right" href="http://docs.fedoraproject.org">
5.4.2.??Sharing a website
It may not be possible to label files with the
samba_share_t type, for example, when wanting to share a website in /var/www/html/. For these cases, use the samba_export_all_ro Boolean to share any file or directory (regardless of the current label), allowing read only permissions, or the samba_export_all_rw Boolean to share any file or directory (regardless of the current label), allowing read and write permissions.
The following example creates a file for a website in
/var/www/html/, and then shares that file through Samba, allowing read and write permissions. This example assumes the httpd, samba, samba-common, samba-client, and wget packages are installed:
4.4.3.??Sharing files between services
Type Enforcement helps prevent processes from accessing files intended for use by another process. For example, by default, Samba can not read files labeled with the
httpd_sys_content_t type, which are intended for use by the Apache HTTP Server. Files can be shared between the Apache HTTP Server, FTP, rsync, and Samba, if the desired files are labeled with the public_content_t or public_content_rw_t type.
The following example creates a directory and files, and allows that directory and files to be shared (read only) through the Apache HTTP Server, FTP, rsync, and Samba:
To share
/shares/ through Samba:
To share
/shares/ through the Apache HTTP Server:
By default, the Apache HTTP Server reads an
index.html file if it exists. If /shares/ did not have index.html, and instead had file1, file2, and file3, a directory listing would occur when accessing http://localhost/shares:
6.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Booleans allow you to tell SELinux how you are running
vsftpd:
6.4.??Configuration Examples
6.4.1.??Uploading to an FTP site
The following example creates an FTP site that allows a dedicated user to upload files. It creates the directory structure and the required SELinux configuration changes:
The following example demonstrates logging in via FTP and uploading a file. This example uses the user1 user from the previous example, where user1 is the dedicated owner of the
/myftp/pub/ directory:
6.2.??Types
By default, anonymous users have read access to files in
/var/ftp/ when they log in via FTP. This directory is labeled with the public_content_t type, allowing only read access, even if write access is configured in /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf. The public_content_t type is accessible to other services, such as Apache HTTP Server, Samba, and NFS.
Use one of the following types to share files through FTP:
11.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running MySQL:
11.4.??Configuration Examples
11.4.1.??MySQL Changing Database Location
When using Fedora 11, the default location for MySQL to store its database is
/var/lib/mysql. This is where SELinux expects it to be by default, and hence this area is already labeled appropriately for you, using the mysqld_db_t type.
The area where the database is located can be changed depending on individual environment requirements or preferences, however it is important that SELinux is aware of this new location - that it is labeled accordingly. This example explains how to change the location of a MySQL database and then how to label the new location so that SELinux can still provide its protection mechanisms to the new area based on its contents.
Note that this is an example only and demonstrates how SELinux can affect MySQL. Comprehensive documentation of MySQL is beyond the scope of this document. Refer to the official MySQL documentation for further details. This example assumes that the mysql-server package is installed and that there is a valid database in the default location of
/var/lib/mysql.
11.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following types are used with
mysql. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
7.4.??Configuration Examples
7.4.1.??Sharing directories using NFS
The example in this section creates a directory and shares it using NFS and SELinux. Two hosts are used in this example; a NFS server with a hostname of
nfs-srv with an IP address of 192.168.1.1, and a client with a hostname of nfs-client and an IP address of 192.168.1.100. Both hosts are on the same subnet (192.168.1.0/24). This is an example only and assumes that the nfs-utils package is installed, that the SELinux targeted policy is used, and that SELinux is running in enforced mode.
This example will show that while even with full network availability and Linux file permissions granting access to all users via NFS, SELinux is still able to block mounting of NFS file systems unless the proper permissions are given via SELinux Booleans.
7.4.1.1.??Server setup
Steps 1-10 below should be performed on the NFS server,
nfs-srv.
At this point the server
nfs-srv has been configured to allow NFS communications to nfs-client at 192.168.1.100, and full Linux file systems permissions are active. If SELinux were disabled, the client would be able to mount this share and have full access over it. However, as the nfs_export_all_rw Boolean is disabled, the client is currently not able to mount this file system, as shown below. This step should be performed on the client, nfs-client:
[nfs-client]# mkdir /myshare [nfs-client]# mount.nfs 192.168.1.1:/myshare /myshare mount.nfs: access denied by server while mounting 192.168.1.1:/myshare/
Enable the SELinux Boolean that was disabled in Step 1 above, and the client will be able to successfully mount the shared file system. This step should be performed on the NFS server,
nfs-srv:
[nfs-srv]# setsebool -P nfs_export_all_rw on
Now try to mount the NFS file system again. This step should be performed on the NFS client,
nfs-client:
[nfs-client]# mount.nfs 192.168.1.1:/myshare /myshare [nfs-client]# [nfs-client]# ls /myshare total 0 -rwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 0 2009-04-16 12:07 file1 [nfs-client]#
The file system has been mounted successfully by the client. This example demonstrates how SELinux adds another layer of protection and can still enforce SELinux permissions even when Linux permissions are set to give full rights to all users.
7.2.??Types
By default, mounted NFS file systems on the client side are labeled with a default context defined by policy for NFS file systems. In common policies, this default context uses the
nfs_t type.The following types are used with NFS. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
14.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running Postfix:
14.4.??Configuration Examples
14.4.1.??SpamAssassin and Postfix
From the SpamAssassin project page:
"Open Source mail filter, written in Perl, to identify spam using a wide range of heuristic tests on mail headers and body text. Free software."
When using Fedora, the spamassassin package provides SpamAssassin. Run
rpm -q spamassassin to see if the spamassassin package is installed. If it is not installed, run the following command as the root user to install it:
yum install spamassassin
SpamAssassin operates in tandom with a mailer such as Postfix to provide spam-filtering capabilities. In order for SpamAssassin to effectively intercept, analyze and filter mail, it must listen on a network interface. The default port for SpamAssassin is TCP/783, however this can be changed. The following example provides a real-world demonstration of how SELinux complements SpamAssassin by only allowing it access to a certain port by default. This example will then demonstrate how to change the port and have SpamAssassin operate on a non-default port.
Note that this is an example only and demonstrates how SELinux can affect a simple configuration of SpamAssassin. Comprehensive documentation of SpamAssassin is beyond the scope of this document. Refer to the official SpamAssassin documentation for further details. This example assumes the spamassassin is installed, that any firewall has been configured to allow access on the ports in use, that the SELinux targeted policy is used, and that SELinux is running in enforcing mode:
Running SpamAssassin on a non-default port
14.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following types are used with
Postfix. Different types all you to configure flexible access:
Note
To see the full list of files and their types for Postfix, run the following command:
$ grep postfix /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts
12.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running PostgreSQL:
12.4.??Configuration Examples
12.4.1.??PostgreSQL Changing Database Location
When using Fedora 11, the default location for PostgreSQL to store its database is
/var/lib/pgsql/data. This is where SELinux expects it to be by default, and hence this area is already labeled appropriately for you, using the postgresql_db_t type.
The area where the database is located can be changed depending on individual environment requirements or preferences, however it is important that SELinux is aware of this new location - that it is labeled accordingly. This example explains how to change the location of a PostgreSQL database and then how to label the new location so that SELinux can still provide its protection mechanisms to the new area based on its contents.
Note that this is an example only and demonstrates how SELinux can affect PostgreSQL. Comprehensive documentation of PostgreSQL is beyond the scope of this document. Refer to the official PostgreSQL documentation for further details. This example assumes that the postgresql-server package is installed.
12.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following types are used with
postgresql. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
5.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Booleans allow you to tell SELinux how you are running Samba:
5.4.??Configuration examples
The following examples provide real-world demonstrations of how SELinux complements the Samba server and how full function of the Samba server can be maintained.
5.4.1.??Sharing directories you create
The following example creates a new directory, and shares that directory through Samba:
5.2.??Types
Label files with the
samba_share_t type to allow Samba to share them. Only label files you have created, and do not relabel system files with the samba_share_t type: Booleans can be turned on to share such files and directories. SELinux allows Samba to write to files labeled with the samba_share_t type, as long as /etc/samba/smb.conf and Linux permissions are set accordingly.
The
samba_etc_t type is used on certain files in /etc/samba/, such as smb.conf. Do not manually label files with the samba_etc_t type. If files in /etc/samba/ are not labeled correctly, run restorecon -R -v /etc/samba as the root user to restore such files to their default contexts. If /etc/samba/smb.conf is not labeled with the samba_etc_t type, the service smb start command may fail and an SELinux denial may be logged. The following is an example denial logged to /var/log/messages when /etc/samba/smb.conf was labeled with the httpd_sys_content_t type:
setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing smbd (smbd_t) "read" to ./smb.conf (httpd_sys_content_t). For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l deb33473-1069-482b-bb50-e4cd05ab18af
10.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running Squid:
10.4.??Configuration Examples
10.4.1.??Squid Connecting to Non-Standard Ports
The following example provides a real-world demonstration of how SELinux complements Squid by enforcing the above Boolean and by default only allowing access to certain ports. This example will then demonstrate how to change the Boolean and show that access is then allowed.
Note that this is an example only and demonstrates how SELinux can affect a simple configuration of Squid. Comprehensive documentation of Squid is beyond the scope of this document. Refer to the official Squid documentation for further details. This example assumes that the Squid host has two network interfaces, Internet access, and that any firewall has been configured to allow access on the internal interface using the default TCP port on which Squid listens (TCP 3128).
10.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following types are used with
squid. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
3.2.??Confined processes
Almost every service that listens on a network is confined in Fedora. Also, most processes that run as the root user and perform tasks for users, such as the passwd application, are confined. When a process is confined, it runs in its own domain, such as the
httpd process running in the httpd_t domain. If a confined process is compromised by an attacker, depending on SELinux policy configuration, an attacker's access to resources and the possible damage they can do is limited.
The following example demonstrates how SELinux prevents the Apache HTTP Server (
httpd) from reading files that are not correctly labeled, such as files intended for use by Samba. This is an example, and should not be used in production. It assumes that the httpd, wget, setroubleshoot-server, and audit packages are installed, that the SELinux targeted policy is used, and that SELinux is running in enforcing mode:
This example demonstrates the additional security added by SELinux. DAC rules allowed the
httpd process access to testfile in step 7, but because the file was labeled with a type that the httpd process does not have access to, SELinux denied access. After step 7, an error similar to the following is logged to /var/log/messages:
Apr 6 23:00:54 localhost setroubleshoot: SELinux is preventing httpd (httpd_t) "getattr" to /var/www/html/testfile (samba_share_t). For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l c05911d3-e680-4e42-8e36-fe2ab9f8e654
Previous log files may use a
/var/log/messages.YYYYMMDD format. When running syslog-ng, previous log files may use a /var/log/messages.X format. If the setroubleshootd and auditd processes are running, errors similar to the following are logged to /var/log/audit/audit.log:
type=AVC msg=audit(1220706212.937:70): avc: denied { getattr } for pid=1904 comm="httpd" path="/var/www/html/testfile" dev=sda5 ino=247576 scontext=unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s0 tcontext=unconfined_u:object_r:samba_share_t:s0 tclass=file
type=SYSCALL msg=audit(1220706212.937:70): arch=40000003 syscall=196 success=no exit=-13 a0=b9e21da0 a1=bf9581dc a2=555ff4 a3=2008171 items=0 ppid=1902 pid=1904 auid=500 uid=48 gid=48 euid=48 suid=48 fsuid=48 egid=48 sgid=48 fsgid=48 tty=(none) ses=1 comm="httpd" exe="/usr/sbin/httpd" subj=unconfined_u:system_r:httpd_t:s0 key=(null)
Also, an error similar to the following is logged to
/var/log/httpd/error_log:
[Sat Apr 06 23:00:54 2009] [error] [client 127.0.0.1] (13)Permission denied: access to /testfile denied
Note
In Fedora, the setroubleshoot-server and audit packages are installed by default. These packages include the
setroubleshootd and auditd daemons respectively. These daemons run by default.
3.3.??Unconfined processes
Unconfined processes run in unconfined domains. For example, init programs run in the unconfined
initrc_t domain, unconfined kernel processes run in the kernel_t domain, and unconfined Linux users run in the unconfined_t domain. For unconfined processes, SELinux policy rules are applied, but policy rules exist that allow processes running in unconfined domains almost all access. Processes running in unconfined domains fall back to using DAC rules exclusively. If an unconfined process is compromised, SELinux does not prevent an attacker from gaining access to system resources and data, but of course, DAC rules are still used. SELinux is a security enhancement on top of DAC rules - it does not replace them.
The following example demonstrates how the Apache HTTP Server (
httpd) can access data intended for use by Samba, when running unconfined. Note: in Fedora, the httpd process runs in the confined httpd_t domain by default. This is an example, and should not be used in production. It assumes that the httpd, wget, setroubleshoot-server, and audit packages are installed, that the SELinux targeted policy is used, and that SELinux is running in enforcing mode:
The examples in these sections demonstrate how data can be protected from a compromised confined process (protected by SELinux), as well as how data is more accessible to an attacker from a compromised unconfined process (not protected by SELinux).
4.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. This can be achieved via Booleans that allow parts of SELinux policy to be changed at runtime, without any knowledge of SELinux policy writing. This allows changes, such as allowing services access to NFS file systems, without reloading or recompiling SELinux policy.
To modify the state of a Boolean, use the
setsebool command. For example, to turn the allow_httpd_anon_write Boolean on, run the following command as the root user:
# setsebool -P allow_httpd_anon_write on
To turn a Boolean off, using the same example, simply change
on to off in the command, as shown below:
# setsebool -P allow_httpd_anon_write off
Note
Do not use the
-P option if you do not want setsebool changes to persist across reboots.
Below is a description of common Booleans available that cater for the way
httpd is running:
4.4.??Configuration examples
The following examples provide real-world demonstrations of how SELinux complements the Apache HTTP Server and how full function of the Apache HTTP Server can be maintained.
4.4.1.??Running a static site
To create a static website, label the
.html files for that website with the httpd_sys_content_t type. By default, the Apache HTTP Server can not write to files that are labeled with the httpd_sys_content_t type. The following example creates a new directory to store files for a read-only website:
4.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following example creates a new file in the
/var/www/html/ directory, and shows the file inheriting the httpd_sys_content_t type from its parent directory (/var/www/html/):
The
ls -Z command shows file1 labeled with the httpd_sys_content_t type. SELinux allows httpd to read files labeled with this type, but not write to them, even if Linux permissions allow write access. SELinux policy defines what types a process running in the httpd_t domain (where httpd runs) can read and write to. This helps prevent processes from accessing files intended for use by another process.
For example,
httpd can access files labeled with the httpd_sys_content_t type (intended for the Apache HTTP Server), but by default, can not access files labeled with the samba_share_t type (intended for Samba). Also, files in user home directories are labeled with the user_home_t type: by default, this prevents httpd from reading or writing to files in user home directories.
The following types are used with
httpd. Different types allow you to configure flexible access:
Changing the SELinux Context
The type for files and directories can be changed with thechcon command. Changes made with chcon do not survive a file system relabel or the restorecon command. SELinux policy controls whether users are able to modify the SELinux context for any given file. The following example demonstrates creating a new directory and an index.html file for use by httpd, and labeling that file and directory to allow httpd access to them:
Refer to the Temporary Changes: chcon section of the Fedora 10 SELinux User Guide for further information about
chcon.
Use the
semanage fcontext command to make label changes that survive a relabel and the restorecon command. This command adds changes to file-context configuration. Then, run the restorecon command, which reads file-context configuration, to apply the label change. The following example demonstrates creating a new directory and an index.html file for use by httpd, and persistently changing the label of that directory and file to allow httpd access to them:
Refer to the Persistent Changes: semanage fcontext section of the Fedora 10 SELinux User Guide for further information on semanage.
13.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Boolean allows you to tell SELinux how you are running rsync:
13.4.??Configuration Examples
13.4.1.??Rsync as a daemon
When using Fedora, rsync can be used as a daemon so that multiple clients can directly communicate with it as a central server, in order to house centralized files and keep them synchronized. The following example will demonstrate running rsync as a daemon over a network socket in the correct domain, and how SELinux expects this daemon to be running on a pre-defined (in SELinux policy) TCP port. This example will then show how to modify SELinux policy to allow the
rsync daemon to run normally on a non-standard port.
This example will be performed on a single system to demonstrate SELinux policy and its control over local daemons and processes. Note that this is an example only and demonstrates how SELinux can affect rsync. Comprehensive documentation of rsync is beyond the scope of this document. Refer to the official rsync documentation for further details. This example assumes that the rsync, setroubleshoot-server and audit packages are installed, that the SELinux targeted policy is used and that SELinux is running in enforcing mode.
Getting rsync to launch as rsync_t
This example demonstrated how to get
rsyncd running in the rsync_t domain. The next example shows how to get this daemon successfully running on a non-default port. TCP port 10000 is used in the next example.
Running the rsync daemon on a non-default port
SELinux has had its policy modified and is now permitting
rsyncd to operate on TCP port 10000.
13.2.??Types
Type Enforcement is the main permission control used in SELinux targeted policy. All files and processes are labeled with a type: types define a domain for processes and a type for files. SELinux policy rules define how types access each other, whether it be a domain accessing a type, or a domain accessing another domain. Access is only allowed if a specific SELinux policy rule exists that allows it.
The following types are used with
rsync. Different types all you to configure flexible access:
7.3.??Booleans
SELinux is based on the least level of access required for a service to run. Services can be run in a variety of ways; therefore, you must tell SELinux how you are running services. The following Booleans allow you to tell SELinux how you are running NFS:
Fedora 11
Imatges autoarrencables de Fedora
Com utilitzar la imatge autoarrencable de Fedora
Dret de reproducci?? ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
Av??s legal
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
Resum
Com utilitzar la imatge autoarrencable de Fedora
1. Introducci??
A Live image is a safe and easy way to test-drive the Fedora operating system on your own familiar hardware. If you enjoy this experience, you can install the Live system software to your system's hard drive. The installation can either replace your existing operating system, or co-exist separately on your hard drive. This Live image provides you with an experience that is very similar to running Fedora, but there are some benefits and caveats. Refer to Secci????5, ???Beneficis??? and Secci????6, ???Limitacions??? for more information.
2. Qu?? he de fer amb la meva imatge autoarrencable?
Abans d'utilitzar la vostra imatge autoarrencable, llegiu la seg??ent secci?? per a treure m??s profit de Fedora. ??s possible que tamb?? vulgueu llegir Secci????4, ???Arrencada??? per suggeriments quant a l'arrencada des d'aquest mitj??. A continuaci?? inseriu aquest medi al vostre ordinador i arrenqueu des d'ell.
3. Maquinari suggerit
This Live system successfully boots and runs on most computers with 256 MB or more installed system memory, or RAM. Your computer must have the ability to boot from the device holding the Live image media. For instance, if the Live image is on a CD or DVD, your computer must be able to boot from the CD or DVD drive.
4. Arrencada
Aquesta secci?? ofereix orientaci?? addicional per a aquells usuaris que no tenen experi??ncia amb l'arrencada de l'ordinador m??s enll?? de pr??mer el bot?? d'inici. Per configurar el sistema per a qu?? arrenqui des del medi autoarrencable, primer tanqueu o hiberneu l'ordinador en cas que no ho estigu??s. Engegueu l'ordinador, i mireu l'indicador de la pantalla inicial de la BIOS on apareix quina tecla cal utilitzar per a veure:
The boot menu option is preferable. If you cannot see such a prompt, consult your manufacturer's documentation for your computer system, motherboard, or mainboard for the correct keystroke. On many systems, the required key will be F12, F2, F1, Esc, or Delete.
La majoria d'ordinadors arrenquen des del disc dur (o d'un dels discs durs, si n'hi ha m??s d'un). Si llegiu aquest document des d'un CD o un DVD, feu que l'ordinador arrenqui des de la unitat de CD o DVD. Si llegiu aquest fitxer des d'un dispositiu USB com ara una targeta de mem??ria o una clau USB, configureu-lo perqu?? arrenqui des del dispositiu USB.
Si aneu a fer canvis en la configuraci?? de la BIOS, enregistreu l'actual selecci?? de dispositius d'arrencada abans de canviar-ho. Aquest registre permet restaurar la configuraci?? original si voleu retornar al vostre anterior entorn.
Les BIOS dels ordinadors vells poden no incloure l'opci?? que desitgeu, com ara l'arrencada de xarxa. Si el vostre ordinador nom??s pot arrencar des de disquet o disc dur, ??s possible que no pugueu executar aquesta imatge autoarrencable en el vostre ordinador.
You may wish to see if an updated BIOS is available from the manufacturer of your computer. A BIOS update may offer additional boot menu choices, but requires care to install properly. Consult the manufacturer's documentation for more information. Otherwise, ask a friend if you can try running this Live image on their newer computer.
5. Beneficis
S'obtenen els seg??ents beneficis amb una imatge autoarrencable:
6. Limitacions
La imatge autoarrencable tamb?? comporta certes limitacions:
7. Experimentar amb la imatge autoarrencable
Exploreu els men??s en cascada de l'escriptori i cerqueu aplicacions a executar. A m??s, ??s possible que vulgueu explorar altres funcionalitats.
7.1. Compartir les dades existents
Podeu compartir dades muntant dispositius d'emmagatzemament existents, tals com:
7.2. Creaci?? d'una c??pia de seguretat de les dades
Podeu fer servir aquesta imatge autoarrencable per crear c??pies de seguretat o c??pies de dades, si el vostre sistema inclou:
Els fitxers utilitzats pel vostre sistema operatiu anterior no s'utilitzen quan s'est?? executant la imatge autoarrencable. Per tant, podeu utilitzar la imatge autoarrencable per copiar fitxers del sistema operatiu actual que s??n problem??tics per al programari de c??pies de seguretat.
8. Instal??lar Fedora des de la imatge autoarrencable
Per instal??lar el sistema operatiu des d'aquesta imatge autoarrencable, executeu el LiveOS com s'ha descrit anteriorment, i seleccioneu l'aplicaci?? de l'escriptori Instal??leu al disc dur. Utilitzant la instal??laci?? de Fedora resultant, podeu personalitzar el programari i les configuracions al vostre gust.
9. Necessitem els vostres comentaris!
Si trobeu un error tipogr??fic a aquest manual, o si coneixeu alguna manera de millorar-lo, ens agradaria escoltar els vostres suggeriments. Si us plau ompliu un informe a Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/ utilitzant el producte Documentation.
Quant envieu un informe d'error, assegureu-vos que citeu l'identificador del manual: Fedora_Live_images
Si teniu qualsevol suggeriment per a millorar la documentaci??, quant ho describiu intenteu fer-ho el m??s clar possible. Si heu trobat un error, si us plau incluiu el n??mero de secci?? aix?? com tamb?? part del text que envolta l'error, a fi i efecte que poguem trobar l'error m??s f??cilment.
A.??Historial de revisi??
| Historial de revisions | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Revisi?? 11.2.0 | Sun Aug 09 2009 | |||
| ||||
| Revisi?? 11.1.0 | Mon Jul 21 2009 | |||
| ||||
| Revisi?? 11.0.0 | Fri May 08 2009 | |||
| ||||
| Revisi?? 10.93.0 | Mon Apr 20 2009 | |||
| ||||
| Revisi?? 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | |||
| ||||
| Revisi?? 9.92 | Sat 19 July 2008 | |||
| ||||
This document describes how to use a Fedora live image to "test-drive" the Fedora operating system on your own familiar hardware. It is available in the following languages:
-Dansk | +
Catal?? |
+Dansk |
Deutsch |
US English |
Espa??ol |
From sradvan at fedoraproject.org Mon Aug 17 01:03:50 2009
From: sradvan at fedoraproject.org (sradvan)
Date: Mon, 17 Aug 2009 01:03:50 +0000 (UTC)
Subject: web/html/docs index.php,1.57,1.58
Message-ID: <20090817010351.0059811C0262@cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com>
Author: sradvan
Update of /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs
In directory cvs1.fedora.phx.redhat.com:/tmp/cvs-serv22970
Modified Files:
index.php
Log Message:
add services guide to index
Index: index.php
===================================================================
RCS file: /cvs/fedora/web/html/docs/index.php,v
retrieving revision 1.57
retrieving revision 1.58
diff -u -r1.57 -r1.58
--- index.php 7 Aug 2009 22:05:13 -0000 1.57
+++ index.php 17 Aug 2009 01:03:20 -0000 1.58
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
Installation Guide • Installation Quick Start Guide
User Guide
Security Guide
-SELinux User Guide
+SELinux User Guide • SELinux Managing Confined Services Guide
SHA1SUM ?????? ?????????????? ????????, ?????? ???? "
-"?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????? ????????????."
+"????????????????, ???????? ???? ???????????????????? Fedora &PRODVER; ?????? ???? ?? ?????????????????????? Pentium "
+"4, ???????????????????? ???????? - SHA1SUM ?????? ?????????????? ????????, ?????? "
+"?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????? ????????????."
#. Tag: title
#: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc.xml:72
@@ -270,9 +268,9 @@ msgid ""
"the available ISO files with a content verification code called a "
"Fedora 11
???????????? ?????????????? ISO ???? ????????
?????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ISO ?? ?????????????????? CD ?? DVD
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
?????????????????? ??????????
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
??????????????????
?????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ISO ?? ?????????????????? CD ?? DVD
1. ????????????????
?????????????????????? Fedora ???????????????? ?? ???????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ISO 9660. ???? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ISO-???????????? ???? CDROM ?????? DVD-???????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????.
???????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ?? ?????????????????? Fedora ?? ?????????? ???? ??????????????????, ???????????????????? ?????????????????? (????????????????) ?????????? ISO-?????????????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????? (CD-R/RW ?????? DVD-R/RW). ?? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ?? ???????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????????????? ????????????. ????????????????????????????, ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ?? Linux ?????? ?? ?????? ???????????????? ?? ???????????? ???????????? ???? ???????????????? ???????????????????????? Microsoft Windows .
???????????? Fedora ???????????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????????????????, ???????????????? ?? ?????????????????????? Fedora
???????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????????????????, ?????????????????????? ?? ???????????????????????????????? ?????? ?????????? Fedora, ???????????????????????????? ????????????????. ???????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????????????????, ???????????????????? ?? ???????? ????????????, ???????????? ???????????? ???????????????????????? ?? ?????????????????????????? ?????? ??????????. Fedora ???? ???????????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?? ???? ?????????????????????? ??????, ???? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ????????????????. ???????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????????? ???? ???????????? ISO ?? ??????????-???????? ???????????????????????? ??????????????.
2. ????????????????
ISO-?????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????? ?? ???? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????????, ???????????????? ???????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????????. ????????????????, ?????? ?????????? ?????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????.
2.1. ?????????? CD ?????? DVD
Fedora ???????????????????????????????? ?? ???????? ???????????????????? ISO-?????????????? CD ?????? ?? ???????? ???????????? ISO-???????????? DVD. ???? ???????????? ???????????????????????? ???????? DVD ISO-??????????, ???????? ?????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????:
- ?? ?????? ???????????????????? ???????????? DVD ?? ???????????????? ???????????? (????????????????????) ????????????
- ?? ?????? ???????????????????? NTFS ???????? ?? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????????
?????? ???????????? ISO-???????????? DVD ???? ???????? ?? ?????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????????????? ???????????? DVD-??????????????????. ???????? ?? ?????? ?????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????? CD-?????????????????? (???? DVD-??????????????????), ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? CD.
?????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ?????????? 2 ????, ?????????? ?????? ?????????? DVD. ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????? NTFS ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????, ???? ???????????? ????-NTFS ?????????????? ?????? ??????????, ????????????????, FAT32. ?????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ??????????
C: ?? Windows ???????????????? ???? ???????? ????????, ?????????? ?????? ??????????????????. ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ?? ???????????????? ????????????????. ?? ???????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????? ????????, ?? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ??????????????. ???????? ?
? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????????????? NTFS-?????????? ?? ?????????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????, ?????????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????? CD.
???????????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ???????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????. ?????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????? 700 ???? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ISO-???????????? CD-??????????, ?????? 3,5 ???? ?????? ISO-???????????? DVD-??????????. ?? ???????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????????????, ?????? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ?? ??????????????
C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora.
2.2. ?????????? ISO-????????????
???????????? ???????????????? ????????????, ?????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ??????????????, ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????????????????????? ???????????? Fedora. ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ????????
Fedora-<????????????>-<??????????????????????>-disc<??????????>.iso, ?????? "<????????????>" ??? ?????? ???????????? Fedora, ?????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????, "<??????????????????????>" ??? ?????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?? "<??????????>" ??? ?????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????????? CD-??????????. ?? ???
????????? ?????????????????????????? DVD, ?? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? DVD.
?????????????????????? ???????????????????? ????????????
i386 ?????? 32-?????????????????? ????, ?????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????? Pentium ?? Athlon. ?????? 64-?????????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ???????????? x86_64, ?????????????? ???????????????????? Athlon 64. ?????? ?????????????????????? PowerPC ?????????????????????? ??? ppc, ?????????????? ?????????????????????? Apple Mac, ???????????????????? ???? ????????, ?????? ?????? ?????????????? ???? ???????????????????? Intel ?????? MacBook. ???????? ???????? ??????????????????, ???? ?????? ?????????? ??????????????, ???????????? ??????????, ?????????????????? ???????????? i386.
????????????????, ???????? ???? ???????????????????? Fedora 11 ?????? ???? ?? ?????????????????????? Pentium 4, ???????????????????? ???????? -
Fedora-11-i386-DVD.iso. ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????? SHA1SUM ?????? ?????????????? ????????, ?????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????? ????????????.
3. ???????????????? ????????????
?? ???????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ????????????, ???????? ???????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ???? ???? ????????????????????. ?????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????????????, ?????? ?????????? ???? ????????????????????. ?????? ???????????? ???????????? ????????
SHA1SUM. ???? ???????????????? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ISO-?????????? ?? ?????????????????????? ????????????, ???????????????????? ??????, ?????????????????????? ???? ?????????????????????????? ISO-??????????.
BitTorrent ?? ???????????????????????????? ???????????????? ??????????????????????
BitTorrent ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????? ????????????????. ???????? ?????? ???????????? BitTorrent ????????????????, ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????????? - ???? ???????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????? ??????.
3.1. ???????????????? ?? ?????????????????????? ?????????? Windows
???????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????, ?????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????????????. ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ???? ??????:
- HashCalc: http://www.slavasoft.com/hashcalc/
- eXpress CheckSum Calculator (XCSC): http://www.irnis.net/soft/xcsc/
???????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ????????????????. ?????????? ???? ?????????????????? ??????????????????, ???? ?? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????? ???????? ISO-????????????. ?????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? SHA-1 ?????? ???????????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ??????????????. ?????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????? ???????? ISO-????????.
???????????????? ????????
SHA1SUM ?? ?????????????????? ??????????????????, ????????????????, ?? Notepad, ?????? ?????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????????. ??????????????????, ?????? ?????????????????????? ??????????, ???????????????? ????????????????, ?? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ?????????? SHA1SUM ?????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ????????????.
???????? ?????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ?????????? ???????????????????? ?? ???????????? ISO-???????????? ???? ????????????????. ???????? ?????????? ???? ??????????????, ?????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ????.
???????????? ??????????????????????
???????????? Fedora ?? ???????????????? Red Hat, Inc. ???? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????, ?????? ????????????????, ???????????????????????? ????????, ?????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????.
3.2. ???????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ???????????? Windows
?????? ???????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????
sha1sum.exe. ???????????????????? ?? ???????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ???????????? http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2004q4/000184.html.
??????????????????
sha1sum.exe ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????. ?????? ????????, ?????????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????, ?????????????????? sha1sum.exe ?? ?????? ???? ??????????????, ?????? ?? ISO-??????????. ???????????????? ??????????????????... ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?????????????? cmd ?? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ????????????. ?????????? ?????????????????? ?? ??????????????, ?????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????. ?????????????????? sha1sum ?????? ?????????????? ISO-??????????, ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ????????:
cd "C:\Documents and Settings\Owner\My Documents\My Downloads\Fedora" sha1sum.exe Fedora-i386-DVD.iso
?????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ????????????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ISO-????????.
???????????????? ????????
SHA1SUM ?? ?????????????????? ??????????????????, ????????????????, ?? Notepad, ?????? ?????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????????. ??????????????????, ?????? ?????????????????????? ??????????, ???????????????? sha1sum.exe, ?? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ?????????? SHA1SUM?????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ISO-????????????.
???????? ?????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ?????????? ???????????????????? ISO-?????????? ???? ????????????????. ???????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ??????????????, ????, ????????????????, ?????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ??????.
4. ???????????? ???? ????????????????
?????????????? ???????????? CD ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????? Windows. Windows-???????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????????/????????????.
?? ???????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ????????????????. ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ISO 9660, ?????????????????????? ????????, ?????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? Fedora, ???? ???????????????? ????????????, ???????????????????????? ?? ???????? ??????????????????. ???????????? ?????????????????? ISO-???????? ???? ???????????? CD ????????????????. ???????? ???????????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ISO-????????????, ???? ?? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ????????, ???? ?????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????.
?????? ???????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????? Fedora ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ISO-???????????? Fedora. ???? ???????? ???????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????? ???? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????, ?????????????????????????? ????????.
???????????? ???????????? ?? Fedora
???????????????????? ?? ???????????? ???????????? ?? Fedora ?????????????????? ???? ???????????? https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/User_Guide-Using_Media.
4.1. ?????????????????????????? ISO Recorder V2 Power Toy
???????????????? ?? ???????????????????? ISO Recorder power toy ?? ??????-?????????? http://isorecorder.alexfeinman.com/isorecorder.htm
- ?? ???????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ISO-?????????? Fedora.
- ?? ?????????????????????? ???????? ???????????????? Copy image to CD.
- ???????????????? ???????? ?????????????? CD Recording Wizard.
- ?????????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ISO-????????????.
4.2. ?????????????????????????? Roxio Easy Media Creator 7
- ?????????????????? Creator Classic.
- ???????????????? Other Tasks.
- ???????????????? Burn from Disc Image File.
- ?????????????? ???????????? ISO-???????? Fedora ?? ???????????????? ??????.
4.3. ?????????????????????????? Nero Burning ROM 5
- ?????????????????? ??????????????????.
- ???????????????? ???????? .
- ???????????????? .
- ?????????????? ???????????? ISO-???????? Fedora ?? ???????????????? ??????.
- ?????????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????????????? ISO-????????????.
4.4. ?????????????????????????? Nero Express 6
- ?????????????????? ??????????????????.
- ???????????????? Disc Image or Saved Project.
- ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????? Open. ?????????????? ???????????? ISO-???????? Fedora. ?????????????? ???????????? .
- ???????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ??????????????. ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ????????????????????????.
- ?????????????? Next ?????? ???????????? ????????????.
- ?????????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????????????? ISO-??????????????.
5. ???????????????? ????????????
?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????????????????, ?????? ?????? CD-?????????? ???????????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????????, ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????????????????:
- ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?? ????????????????????????????, ?????? BIOS ???????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????????????? ?? CD ??????????????.
- ?????????????????????????? ??????????????????, ???????????????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???????? ?? CD-????????????. ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? Fedora.
- ?????????????? Enter.
- ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ???? ????????????, ???????? ???? ???????????????? ???????????? ???? ???????????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????.
- ?????????????????? ???????????????? ??????????. ???????? ???????????????? ???????????? ??????????????, ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????????????. ?? ???????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????? ??????????????????. ?????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????? Fedora ?? ?????????????????????????? ??????????????.
- ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ?? ?????????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??????????, ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ????????????????.
6. ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????!
???????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ?? ???????? ??????????????????????, ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????, ?????? ?????? ????????????????, ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????! ????????????????????, ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?? Bugzilla ???? ???????????? http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/, ???????????? ?????????????? Fedora.
??????????????????, ?????? ?? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????: Burning_ISO_images_to_disc.
???????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????, ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????????. ???????? ???? ?????????? ????????????, ????????????????????, ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????, ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ??????????.
A.???????????????? ????????????
| ?????????????? ?????????????????????? | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ?????????????? 11.0.0 | Fri May 01 2009 | ||
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| ?????????????? 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | ||
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Fedora 11
?????????????????????? "??????????" ???????????? Fedora
?????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????????? "??????????" ?????????? Fedora
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others
?????????????????? ??????????
Copyright ?? 2009 Red Hat, Inc. and others. This material may only be distributed subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V1.0, (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
Fedora and the Fedora Infinity Design logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
Red Hat and the Red Hat "Shadow Man" logo are registered trademarks of Red Hat Inc. in the United States and other countries.
All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
Documentation, as with software itself, may be subject to export control. Read about Fedora Project export controls at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal/Export.
??????????????????
?????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????????? "??????????" ?????????? Fedora
- 1. ????????????????
- 2. ?????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????
- 3. ?????????????????????????? ????????????????????????
- 4. ????????????????
- 5. ????????????????????????
- 6. ??????????????????????????????
- 7. ?????????????????????????????????????? ?? "??????????" ??????????????
- 8. ?????????????????? Fedora ?? "????????????" ????????????
- 9. ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????!
- A. ?????????????? ??? ?????????
1. ????????????????
A Live image is a safe and easy way to test-drive the Fedora operating system on your own familiar hardware. If you enjoy this experience, you can install the Live system software to your system's hard drive. The installation can either replace your existing operating system, or co-exist separately on your hard drive. This Live image provides you with an experience that is very similar to running Fedora, but there are some benefits and caveats. Refer to ??????????????5, ???????????????????????????? and ??????????????6, ?????????????????????????????????? for more information.
2. ?????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????
???????????? ?????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????, ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????????, ?????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????????????? Fedora. ????????????????, ?????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????????4, ???????????????????? ???? ?????????????? ?? ?????????? ???????????????? . ?????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?? ???????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ????????.
3. ?????????????????????????? ????????????????????????
This Live system successfully boots and runs on most computers with 256 MB or more installed system memory, or RAM. Your computer must have the ability to boot from the device holding the Live image media. For instance, if the Live image is on a CD or DVD, your computer must be able to boot from the CD or DVD drive.
4. ????????????????
???????? ???????????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????????????, ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????????????? (????????????????) ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ??????????????. ?????? ????????, ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ???????????? "????????????" ????????????????, ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ?? ???????????? ??????????, ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ???? ????????????????. ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ???????????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? BIOS, ?? ?????????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ?????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????:
- ???????? ???????????????? ??????
- ?????????????? ?????????????????? BIOS.
The boot menu option is preferable. If you cannot see such a prompt, consult your manufacturer's documentation for your computer system, motherboard, or mainboard for the correct keystroke. On many systems, the required key will be F12, F2, F1, Esc, or Delete.
?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?? ???????????????? ?????????? (?????? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????????, ???????? ???? ???????????? ????????????). ???????? ???? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?? CD ?????? DVD, ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????????? ?? DVD ?????? CD-??????????????. ???????? ???? ?????????????? ???????? ???????? ?? USB-????????????????????, ????????????????, ?? ????????-???????????? ?????? ????????-????????????????????, ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????????? ?? USB-????????????????????.
???????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????????????????? BIOS, ???? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????. ?????? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ??????????????????, ???????? ???? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????? ??????????????.
?? BIOS ?????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?????????????? ?????? ????????????????, ????????????????, ???????????????? ???? ????????. ???????? ?????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ??????????, ???? ??????, ????????????????, ???? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???????? "??????????" ?????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????????????.
You may wish to see if an updated BIOS is available from the manufacturer of your computer. A BIOS update may offer additional boot menu choices, but requires care to install properly. Consult the manufacturer's documentation for more information. Otherwise, ask a friend if you can try running this Live image on their newer computer.
5. ????????????????????????
???????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????????:
- ?????????????? ?? ???????? "??????????" ??????????????, ???? ?????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????, ?? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????????, ?????????????????? ??????????????, ?????? ?????????????? ?? ???????????? ??????????????????????. ???? ???????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ?? ?????? ????????????????????.
- ???? ???????????? ???????????????????????????????????? ?? ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ????????????-???????? ?????????????????????????? ?? ?????? ?????????????????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?? ??????????????????. ???????????????????? ??????????????, ?? ?????????????? ??????????????????, ?? ???????????? ??????????, ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ???????????????????????????? ???????????????????????? "????????????" ????????????????, ?? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?? ???????? ???????????????????? ??????????????, ??? ?????? ???????????????? ????????????????????.
- ???? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ????????????????, ?????????? ????????????????, ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ?? ???????????????? ???????????????????? ?? ?????????? ??????????????.
???????????? ?????????????????????????? ????????????????????????
In some cases, the Live image not offer the full range of hardware support seeing in an installed Fedora system. You may be able to manually configure support in the Live image. If you are using the Live image from a CD or DVD, you must repeat these steps each time you use the Live image. - ???? ???????????? ???????????????????????? "??????????" ?????????? ?????? ????????, ?????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????: GNOME, KDE, XFCE ?????? ????????????. ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????? ??????????????.
- Live images on USB can include both a persistence overlay and a separate area for user data. The persistence overlay allows you to make changes to the Fedora environment and retain these changes across reboots. These changes can include system software updates, configuration changes, and new packages you choose to install. The separate user data area allows you to reinstall the Live image with a newer version of Fedora later, while retaining your documents, media files, and other important information.
6. ??????????????????????????????
?????????? ??????????????, ?????????????????????????? "??????????" ?????????????? ?????????????? ?? ?? ???????????????????? ????????????????????????:
- While using this Live image on CD or DVD, your computer may be much slower to respond or require more time to complete tasks than with a system installed to hard disk. CD and DVD discs provide data to the computer at a much slower rate than hard disks. Less of your computer's system memory is available for loading and running applications. Running the Live image from RAM trades higher memory usage for faster response times.
- ????-???? ???????????????????????????? ?????????? ?? ???????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ????????????????????, ?????? ?? ???????????? ?????????????????? Fedora. ?????????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?? ???????? "??????????" ????????????, ???????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ???????????? ?????????????????? Fedora ?? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????????.
Live USB persistence
Live USB images with persistence allow you to install new applications on your Fedora system. There is a limit to the space available for new applications. If you decide to make many changes to the software installed, you may wish to install Fedora to a hard disk first. - At this time, you cannot permanently install new applications in the Live image on CD or DVD. To try other applications, or newer versions of existing applications, you must either use a Live USB image with persistence, or install Fedora on your computer. You may be able to temporarily install or update applications, however, if you have sufficient system memory. Most systems require more than 512 MB RAM for installations or updates to succeed. These changes will be lost when you shut down the Live image.
- Changes may also evaporate if your system's memory usage forces the system to reread the original software or settings from the Live image on CD or DVD. This behavior is peculiar to a Live CD or DVD image and does not occur in a full installation of Fedora.
7. ?????????????????????????????????????? ?? "??????????" ??????????????
???????????????? ?????????????????? ????????, ?????????? ????????????????????, ?????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????????????? ??????????????????. ?????????? ????????, ???? ?????????? ???? ?????????????????? ?? ???????????? ??????????????????????.
7.1. ???????????? ?? ???????????????????????? ????????????
?????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????, ????????????????:
- ????????????
- USB-??????????????????????
- ???????????????? ??????????
7.2. ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ????????????
???????? ?????????? "??????????" ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ????????, ?????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????????, ???????? ?? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????:
- ???????????? ?????? ???????????? CD ?????? DVD
- ?????????????? ????????, ???? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????
??????????, ???????????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ????????????, ???? ???????????????????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?? "????????????" ????????????. ?????????????? "??????????" ?????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????????? ????????????, ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????????????????????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????? ??????????????.
8. ?????????????????? Fedora ?? "????????????" ????????????
?????? ????????, ?????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ?? "????????????" ????????????, ?????????????????? LiveOS, ?????? ?????????????????????? ????????, ?? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? Install to Hard Disk. ?? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????? Fedora ?????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ?? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????????? ???? ???????????????????? ????????????.
9. ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????!
???????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ?? ???????? ??????????????????????, ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????, ?????? ?????? ????????????????, ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????! ????????????????????, ???????????????? ?????????????????? ?? Bugzilla ???? ???????????? http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla/, ???????????? ?????????????? Documentation.
??????????????????, ?????? ?? ?????????????????? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????: Fedora_Live_images.
???????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????, ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????????. ???????? ???? ?????????? ????????????, ????????????????????, ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????, ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ??????????.
A.???????????????? ????????????
| ?????????????? ?????????????????????? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ?????????????? 11.2.0 | Sun Aug 09 2009 | |||
| ||||
| ?????????????? 11.1.0 | Mon Jul 21 2009 | |||
| ||||
| ?????????????? 11.0.0 | Fri May 08 2009 | |||
| ||||
| ?????????????? 10.93.0 | Mon Apr 20 2009 | |||
| ||||
| ?????????????? 10.0.0 | Fri Nov 07 2008 | |||
| ||||
| ?????????????? 9.92 | Sat 19 July 2008 | |||
| ||||